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Domestic violence research highlights overlooked links between head injuries and mental health
Domestic violence can leave a lasting injury that cannot always be seen: damage to the brain. Strangulation or choking and blows to the skull—some of the most common forms of this abuse—can cause physical ...
Gurnoor Brar has been expensive, but India happy to pay the price for now
Ahead of the 2027 ODI World Cup, the team management wants the fast bowler tested, not protected
Is Miami Heat's Andrew Wiggins Due For A Big Season?
After a blockbuster offseason headlined by Giannis Antetokounmpo, the rejuvenated veteran wing could quietly be the X-factor in Miami.
Browns 2nd-quarter schedule lookahead
Cleveland Browns are 3-1 through the first quarter of the season, what does the next 4 games on the schedule look like?
The Download October 2, 2026
The Download: Healey asks Trump administration to speed up review of planned gas expansion in latest sign of shifting energy politics
Parker-Hannifin Benefits From Business Strength Amid Headwinds
PH's aerospace and industrial growth, acquisitions and portfolio shift support momentum as rising costs and debt weigh on results.
Hayduk Engineering expanding with $4M Ronkonkoma acquisition
Hayduk Engineering is expanding its Ronkonkoma headquarters after acquiring a 20,776-square-foot office building for $4 million to support growth.
Denzel Bentley signs with Zuffa Boxing and will fight Shane Mosley Jr at Copper Box Arena on November 7 live on Sky Sports
Denzel Bentley will fight Shane Mosley Jr on November 7, live on Sky Sports; Bentley has signed a multi-fight promotional deal with Zuffa Boxing and his clash with Mosley Jr will take place on Zuffa Boxing 12, headlined by Chris Billam-Smith vs Cheavon Clarke
Eagles’ 10-Year NFL Veteran Makes Change Before Rams Game
Kicking off a new week, the Philadelphia Eagles elevated one of their practice squad players to join the active roster. The safety Kenny Moore is getting more than just a role change with the Eagles ahead of Week 4 against the Los Angeles Rams. According to NBC Sports Philadelphia’s Dave Zangaro, Moore is changing his […] The post Eagles’ 10-Year NFL Veteran Makes Change Before Rams Game appeared first on HEAVY.
Gates Gains From Business Strength Amid Persisting Headwinds
GTES sees stronger demand, margin gains and data center growth, but weak agriculture and rising costs remain key headwinds.
Do the Massillon Tigers play an OHSAA football game tonight?
The unbeaten Massillon Tigers do not play in tonight. Here's what's ahead for the Tigers and where they sit in the OHSAA football playoff picture.
9 things I wish flyers would stop doing on planes; ex-flight attendant
I saw far too many people go to the lavatory barefoot or blast music without headphones.
Bills vs. Patriots: Thursday injury reports for both teams
Here are the injury reports for both the Bills and Patriots ahead of their Week 4 clash.
Hartlepool appoint Wild as head coach
Hartlepool United appoint former Oldham and Halifax boss Pete Wild as their new head coach.
Chase Infiniti to star in new horror film 'Portrait of God'
Chase Infiniti headshot (Courtesy of Backstage)
Was long-awaited win a turning point for Craig Bellamy?
Has the impressive 2-1 victory over Norway changed the mood music for Wales and restored fans confidence in head coach Craig Bellamy?
PS5 gets "AI-guided upscaling" a bit like PS5 Pro's, and it's available now in Marvel's Wolverine and Ghost of Yotei
AI upscaling was previously exclusive to PS5 Pro, but base PS5s are getting a watered down version, and it's available now.
Mike Mazzei, Cyndi Munson face off in gubernatorial debate ahead of midterm election
OETA aired a pre-taped debate between the Republican and Democratic candidates for governor on Thursday.
Girls challenge away force
Hosting Vienna before two-week breakTo wrap up the first half of the ADMIRAL Women's Bundesliga regular season, our team faces another home match before heading into the international break. First Vie...
Ford recalls more than 40,000 trucks and SUVs over visibility risk
Ford is recalling more than 40,000 vehicles due to a headlight issue that could reduce the driver's visibility and increase the risk of a crash.
Center For Family Health Sports Scoreboard
Airdate: October 1st, 2026 Center For Family Health Sports Scoreboard – October 1st, 2026October 2, 2026Boys Soccer AP Cabrini vs Lumen Christi, 10-1-26 | Photo GalleryOctober 1, 2026Volleyball Will Carleton vs JPEC, 10-1-26 | Photo GalleryOctober 1, 2026The David Rice Show – Episode #152 w/ High School Football Week 6 Picks & Leslie Head Coach…
Allianz names new CEOs at Allianz Partners and Allianz Direct
Philipp Kroetz moves from Direct to lead Partners, with Partners COO Laurent Floquet taking over Direct, as Tomas Kunzmann heads to the Allianz SE board
'Mini-Woodstock' Music Series Raises Money for Mental Health
As Johnny Ray of the Swampscott Performing Arts Center and the Marblehead Counseling Center (MCC) discussed a potential event, Ray said, “So you’re trying to put on a mini-Woodstock.” Just...
John Peck heads to Arizona Fall Ball
After a promising season stalled by injury, the Tigers’ infielder heads to Scottsdale to reclaim lost development time and refine his offensive approach against elite competition.
Nick Saban says he was offered Giants job in 1997
Nick Saban's two-year stint as an NFL head coach began in 2005.
‘Biggest day of the year;’ downtown St. Petersburg businesses rejoice ahead of ALDS
Ahead of playoff baseball's return to St. Petersburg and Tropicana Field, downtown businesses are bracing for at least a weekend of packed crowds.
Eagles Delivered Brutal DeVonta Smith Update Before Rams Game
Going into a tough matchup against the Los Angeles Rams this weekend, the Philadelphia Eagles have a loaded injury report. The wide receiver DeVonta Smith is a headliner. For the second straight week, Smith is dealing with a hamstring injury. On Wednesday, the Eagles had a walkthrough, but estimated that Smith would not practice at […] The post Eagles Delivered Brutal DeVonta Smith Update Before Rams Game appeared first on HEAVY.
Watch Live: Connie Chan, Scott Wiener Debate for SF Congressional Seat
San Francisco Supervisor Connie Chan and state Sen. Scott Wiener meet live onstage Thursday night at KQED for a critical debate ahead of the November election.
Detroit Pistons’ J.B. Bickerstaff Exercising Patience With Jalen Duren
Without Jalen Duren at training camp, Detroit Pistons head coach J.B. Bickerstaff shared his perspective on the big man’s absence
DCB Bluegrass Band headed to Carter Fold (copy)
HILTONS, Va. — The Carter Family Fold will host the DCB Bluegrass Band this Saturday, Oct. 3 at 7:30 p.m. Doors open at 6 p.m.
Spurs Shut Out 'Noise' Ahead of NBA Season
The San Antonio Spurs will have to juggle a three-guard lineup this season, although the players actually involved don't see it as an issue.
Military Leaders Will Examine Ways to Limit Civilian Deaths in War
U.S. Central Command will hold a daylong conference at its Tampa headquarters after seven months of war in Iran.
Jerome Tang, K-State finalizing $12 million settlement agreement: reports
MANHATTAN (KSNT) — Kansas State University and former men’s basketball head coach Jerome Tang are reportedly finalizing a settlement agreement. K-State will reportedly pay Tang $12 million between now and the end of 2027, per ESPN’s Pete Thamel. The university fired Tang ‘for cause’ on Feb. 15 before the end of the 2025-26 season following […]
Fan Favorite Headlines Steelers Inactives vs. Browns
CLEVELAND, Ohio — Ahead of Thursday night’s road game against the Cleveland Browns, the Pittsburgh Steelers announced their inactives, headlined […]
Denver Broncos Look To Continue Historically Successful October Streak
Since Sean Payton became head coach in 2023, the Denver Broncos have posted a 10-3 October record, one they hope to continue to build upon as they travel to meet the San Francisco 49ers on Sunday.
20+ editor-approved practical gifts for 2026
Minimalists, utilitarians, and Type-As alike will love a gift they’ll actually use, so we've collected dozens they'll use for years to come
Orlando Magic's Nikola Vučević Draws Flattering Comparison for Sean Sweeney
The veteran center praises new head coach Sean Sweeney’s collaborative style, drawing a high-stakes parallel to the coach who sparked the best seasons of his storied career.
Who does CBS Sports think OU will face this bowl season?
Where does CBS Sports have the Oklahoma Sooners headed in their new bowl predictions?
HOMETOWN ENTERTAINMENT: A special high school production of “SIX: The Musical,” a concert for country fans and several festivals headline this weekend
Several live events and festivals are happening in our hometowns this weekend, including Point of Honor's Day at the Point
Real Madrid boss Mourinho labels Cristiano Ronaldo comments ‘fake’
Real Madrid head coach José Mourinho has moved to distance himself from any and all comments regarding the situation of Cristiano Ronaldo at present.This of course comes amid a controversy-filled las...
Multi-sport standouts headline Philo Athletic Hall of Fame class
The latest Philo Hall of Fame class features some of the best multi-sport athletes in school history.
Community leader named Fulbright Specialist, heads to Sweden to study youth sports
From local youth mentorship to the global stage, a familiar community leader across our region is taking his passion for youth development overseas.
Kentucky Gov. Andy Beshear and Razorbacks coach John Calipari talk politics and basketball during appearance in Little Rock
Kentucky Gov. Andy Beshear spoke with John Calipari, the head coach of the University of Arkansas men's basketball team, during an appearance in Little Rock on Thursday.
Ten bucks says you’ll love this community science project
Today marks the first day of Rut Watch 2026 With another season of Deer Spy in the books thanks to community scientists like you, biologists are now on a mission to pinpoint the peak of the white-tailed deer breeding season in Maine. Every observation of deer breeding behavior and sign helps define the timing of the rut, and this project uses the power of community science to collect deer data all fall long. Hunters, hikers, and wildlife watchers - Rut Watch pairs well with any outdoor adventure you have planned this season. It’s a perfect excuse to slow down and connect with nature as you look for clues. So get outside, rack up that deer data and submit rut reports from now through December 1. The online form is science made simple: Location Date and time Breeding behavior observed Submit a Rut Report What to watch for Active Breeding The most obvious breeding behavior to observe is a buck mounting a doe, but that is a rare sight as it only lasts a moment. You are more likely to witness a buck “tending” a doe, following closely, chasing, nuzzling, or pawing at her rump until she is receptive. Sparring After bucks shed their velvet, sparring helps sort out who is who in the dominance hierarchy. Early season matches are often less intense than later season matches between similar sized bucks. Most sparring is complete by the time breeding begins. Rubs Don’t just look for deer, pay attention to the trees. Rubs are marks made by bucks when they rub their antlers on trees, removing bark and leaving their scent calling card in the process. Scrapes Look to the forest floor for this sign of breeding season behavior. Scrapes consist of two parts - a licking branch, and a patch of cleared earth. Bucks break a low branch around head height, then paw at the leaves below to expose the dirt. Covered in scent, a scrape tells does and other bucks, “I’m here!” Learn More More information What’s next for deer community science: Northern Maine Wintering Deer Survey Other active community science projects: Fish Tag Reporting Maine Golden Eagle Study Maine Amphibian & Reptile Atlas Project Maine Deer Management: Maine’s Big Game Management Plan Game Species Conservation & Management Report The Benefits of Hunting: Supporting Wildlife, Conservation, and Community Subscribe Share Leave a comment
BLINK announces headline performance ahead of 2026 festival
There are 92 participating artists this year, representing 20 countries. Thirty artists hail from Cincinnati and Northern Kentucky.
Trump sends out $500 ACA refunds and a letter promoting his record
The rebate checks are headed to nearly 1 million people President Donald Trump says were overcharged under the Affordable Care Act.
Erik Bright Joins PMK Entertainment in Executive VP Role
"Erik brings an exceptional combination of creative vision, deep industry relationships and strategic communications expertise to PMK," said company CEO Cindi Berger.
Can ‘Outstanding Practices’ Turn into Victory for Seminoles?
Florida State coach Mike Norvell is happy with the way his team has practiced this week ahead of their ACC game with Virginia. But the Seminoles must learn how to turn those good practices into wins on game day.
Michigan high school football rankings: Top 20 ahead of Week 6 (Sept. 29)
We’re midway through the Michigan high school football season, and the Week 5 edition of the Power Poll arrives with plenty to sort through.
Never played in Prem - and now face World Cup hosts
Jack Combes and Alex Post tell BBC Sport about a "dream come true" as they look ahead to the 2027 Rugby World Cup opener against hosts Australia.
NFL Expert Picks for Week 4
There’s no way to sugarcoat it: Week 3 was an absolute mess for NFL picks. We had been feeling pretty good about ourselves until Sunday rolled around and slapped us upside the head with the Commanders upsetting the Seahawks, the Steelers beating the Bengals, and Carolina falling to Cleveland. We roll on nonetheless, with a […]
Lions injury updates: Defensive end D.J. Wonnum returns to practice
Only one player on the Detroit Lions' active roster wasn't at practice Thursday, Oct. 1, ahead of their game against the Carolina Panthers.
Maine Dems, GOP exchange jabs over fundraising in the governor’s race
The focus on funds comes as candidates prep for a series of debates and with early voting starting statewide on Monday. Several polls show Pingree ahead of Charles and independent Rick Bennett by a significant margin.
Confirmed lineups: Germany vs Serbia
After drawing 1-1 with the Netherlands and losing 0-1 to Greece, Germany are still searching for their first win under Jürgen Klopp heading into Thursday night's 2026/27 UEFA Nations League home game...
Former Yankees Manager Reveals Potential Plan for Aaron Judge
A former New York Yankees manager has revealed a potential plan for Aaron Judge heading into the ALDS.
Stihl taps Caterpillar vet as new president
Stihl Inc. named Caterpillar veteran Sean McGinnis its new president effective immediately Thursday.
Sinclair, Zagunis headline Oregon Sports Hall of Fame class
Christine Sinclair, Mariel Zagunis and Jacoby Ellsbury are among five inductees selected for the Oregon Sports Hall of Fame Class of 2026.
Microsoft executives Peter Lee, president of Microsoft Science, and EVP Ryan Roslansky to depart
Two top Microsoft executives shared this week that they're leaving the Redmond, Wash., tech giant: Peter Lee, the former head of Microsoft Research, and Ryan Roslansky, Microsoft executive vice president overseeing both LinkedIn and Microsoft Office.
Hinojosa claims Abbott using cops for political gain in Texas governor race
Gina Hinojosa accuses Gov. Greg Abbott of using Texas law enforcement for political gain in a new ad ahead of the 2026 Texas governor election.
Health board admits failings that led to dementia patient's death
Andrea Imrie, 82, died a week after she fell and sustained catastrophic head injuries at Murray Royal Hospital in Perth.
Letter to the editor: No longer science fiction
To the editor, As a teenager in the 1960s, I subsisted on a diet of science fiction and fantasy, for which I was often chastised by my elders. “Why are you filling your head with that …
UTA Shakes Up Filmed Entertainment Group: Matt Rice Named President
The exec will be joined by newly elevated managing partners Allan Haldeman, Blair Kohan, Jay Gassner and Julien Thuan, as well as a Filmed Entertainment Board.
At Age 15, He Started Selling a Sweet Product for $2. His Business Broke $25,000 Last Summer: ‘Smooth Sailing, No Pun Intended.’
Brian Troupe came up with a creative way to earn some extra cash.
'Every setback also has a positive'
"I had a tumour when I was five years old," the Newcastle United head coach says. Jaissle, like so many, visualised one day becoming a professional footballer, but he was among the rare few to actually go on to do so. The former Hoffenheim defender even felt he was on the verge of a senior call up to the German national team at one stage, only to suffer a serious knee injury.
Joey Porter Jr. Trade Gives Steelers Fresh Start
Former Pittsburgh Steelers head coach Mike Tomlin always said he wanted volunteers and not hostages. It turns out general manager Omar Khan and current head coach Mike McCarthy feel the same way with the Joey Porter Jr. trade news that broke just after 11:30 P.M. Wednesday. The Steelers acquired a 2028 2nd-round pick and a …
Demon Star and Witch's Head kick off spooky space season
NASA highlighted a triple-binary system and an eerie nebula.
Kato Elected Science Council Head on Shift to Public Corporation
Tokyo, Oct. 1 (Jiji Press)--The Science Council of Japan elected Kazuto Kato, professor emeritus at the Univer…
Northern Ireland in 'good shape' for Ukraine game
Northern Ireland manager Michael O'Neill says his side are in "good shape" ahead of their Nations League match against Ukraine in Slovakia.
Letter: Politics shouldn’t be dirty
Letter: Grand County Sheriff Jamison Wiggins, a candidate for re-election, calls for local campaigns built on accountability, not personal attacks.
Emergent Names Tom Shelburne Head of Business Development, North America
Five-time Emmy Award winner to bring company’s browser-native broadcast graphics to market
Could GTA VI bring back casinos?
Bodog reports that while GTA VI hints at potential gambling elements, no confirmation for a full casino has been made ahead of its November 2026 release.
Could GTA VI bring back casinos?
Bodog reports that while GTA VI hints at potential gambling elements, no confirmation for a full casino has been made ahead of its November 2026 release.
Report: Jamal Shead, Raptors agree to three-year, $24 million contract extension
The former second-round pick turned critical reserve has earned a spot in Toronto's plans for years to come.
Shead lands an extension just two seasons after going …
Shead lands an extension just two seasons after going …
Matt LaFleur explains why Packers added 434 starts of veterans who have “been through war”
Matt LaFleur and the Green Bay Packers have spent the opening weeks of the season constantly adjusting their offensive line, leaving the group without much stability heading into Week 4. Green Bay responded by bringing in veteran reinforcements who have combined for 434 career starts, adding a level of experience the unit had been missing. [...]
Certilman Balin adds attorneys, healthcare practice
Certilman Balin Adler & Hyman has expanded by adding attorneys from Cooperman Lester Miller Gruber Kraus and establishing a new healthcare practice. The practice will advise healthcare providers and organizations on legal matters, enhancing the firm's multidisciplinary services across the region.
Axa XL launches dedicated excess and surplus insurer
Bermuda-headquartered Axa XL has launched Axa XL Excess and Surplus Lines Insurance Company, an entity dedicated to wholesale broker partnerships, Reinsurance News reported. It will begin underwriting…
Trump will hold a rally in Choctaw Nation, a rare presidential visit to Indian Country
The rally is part of President Donald Trump's recent campaign push through deep red states, where he has been stumping for Republican candidates and promoting his agenda ahead of November’s midterm elections.
Phillies Talk: Phillies force decisive Game 3 after CRAZY win in Game 2
Coming off a WILD win in Game 2 against the Braves, Sean Kane and Spencer McKercher break down the win and look ahead to a decisive Game 3.
Bulls Waive UDFA, Sign Ex-Phoenix Suns Forward
The Chicago Bulls made a pair of moves ahead of the 2026 NBA preseason.
Ace Combat 8 developer apologises for Belkan War pre-order backlash, explains why it happened and vows to explore possible solutions
The team behind Ace Combat 8 has issued a statement in response to the controversy surrounding the game's pre-order bonus game, The Belkan War.
Packers turn to Skyy Moore after Jayden Reed’s season ending injury
The Green Bay Packers will have to move forward without Jayden Reed for the rest of the season, but they already have a short term plan in place. If that approach fails to provide enough production, Green Bay still has other options it can explore later in the year. Packers head coach Matt LaFleur addressed [...]
Week 5 college football viewer's guide: Ohio State's trip to Iowa headlines the first weekend of October
Saquon Barkley: fantasy bust or turnaround candidate?
Here's why Saquon Barkley's slow start isn't a fluke, and why he's headed toward his least-productive per-game season.
For every two seconds of frustration, there are 10 seconds of euphoria: the Gears of War E-Day campaign is a satisfying, meaty return to form for The Coalition
Less a complete reset for the series, and more of an 'active reload', E-Day proves there's still life in these old Cogs yet.
Riverhead asks residents, businesses to report nor’easter damage
Riverhead Town officials are asking residents and business owners to self-report damage from the Sept. 26-27 nor’easter using a New York State online form to help document impacts and support…
TGL looking for another successful season opener competing with NFL
TGL will open its third season Sunday, Dec. 27, and go head-to-head with the NFL for the second consecutive season. Teams and time will be announced at a later date.
STATEMENT: Refugees & Legal Immigrants Lose Healthcare Coverage
Starting October 1, refugees and other immigrants who are living in the U.S. legally are no longer eligible for Medicaid or CHIP.
Bears Defense Gets an Unexpected Boost Ahead of Crucial Stretch
The Chicago Bears’ defense has started to look like a different unit over the past two weeks. After a rough […]
Dodgers notes: Offense, Freddie Freeman, Miguel Rojas
As the Los Angeles Dodgers await the outcome of the final game between the Philadelphia Philles and Atlanta Braves to see who they will face in the NLDS, the team is busy working on keeping their bats and arms fresh and ready for the road to a three-peat that lies ahead. As Bill Plunkett of […]
Good science requires much more than evidence
Empiricists believe that scientific theories are true only if they make correct empirical predictions: if we can't verify these predictions, then there is no reason to expect that they tell us anything about reality. However, Professor of Philosophy at King's College David Kyle Johnson argues that this is mistaken. In response to Bas van Fraassen, who has written on this subject for the IAI, he argues that we have many reasons for believing a theory to be true, such as it being parsimonious and having large scope — qualities which have been used throughout the history of science as criteria for judging theories. In 2024, Princeton philosopher Bas van Fraassen wrote a short article for IAI News entitled “Science Does not Describe Reality: The Limits and Benefits of Explanation.” At the time, I was working on two projects (a science book and a Great Course) that, when completed, would (among other things) defend science’s ability to describe reality. I wanted to write a response to van Fraassen, but the projects demanded too much of my attention. But now that those projects are complete, I am in a position to explain the objections to van Fraassen’s thesis. Summarizing van Fraassen’s argumentIn a nutshell, his argument is this: What scientists do is make predictions based on theories and then invite others to test to see whether those predictions are borne out. “If theory T is right, result R should happen in experimental condition C.” Many think that running an experiment that shows that R happens in condition C is proof that theory T is true (and should be believed). But, van Fraassen argues, that R happened in condition C is only a reason to think that R happens in condition C. That’s the only observable, or empirical, result we can actually see, so that is all that we are really justified in believing. (The underlying theory that made that prediction still may or may not be true.) That is why he calls those who accept his position “empiricists.”Before I explain what is wrong with this position, let me explain what it gets right. What van Fraassen Gets RightFirst, a theory correctly predicting the results of an experiment is not, strictly speaking, “proof” that the theory is correct. The basic line of reasoning is this:If the theory T is true, result R should happen. Result R did happen. Thus, theory T is true.In other words:“If T then R. R. Thus, T.”This is a deductively invalid, fallacious mode of reasoning, called “affirming the consequent.” Those premises do not guarantee that the conclusion follows. “If I am in Pennsylvania, then I am in the USA. I am in the USA. Thus, I am in Pennsylvania.” Clearly that argument doesn’t guarantee its conclusion; neither does the above argument.However, science is not a deductive method of reasoning; it is an inductive one. And inductive arguments merely try to raise the probability of their conclusion, not “prove” them for certain. Thus, the fact that an experimental result doesn’t prove a theory is true is irrelevant; it’s not supposed to. That is not what scientific reasoning is about.___If the hypothesis that something exists clearly provides the best explanation for what we can observe, then the belief that it exists is what is rational.___Second, it’s also true that a single experimental result doesn’t provide enough justification to believe that a theory is true. Scientists do not come to a consensus about whether a theory is true by looking at a single experiment; they look at all the evidence to determine where the preponderance of evidence points. The mere fact that I am in the USA raises the probability that I am in Pennsylvania, but not nearly enough to conclude that I am in Pennsylvania. However, if I am also regularly encountering people wearing Eagles and Phillies hats and seeing advertisements for Founding Father tours, I probably am. In the same way, a theory successfully predicting the outcome of one experiment is not enough to conclude that it is true; but if a theory makes a wide variety of predictions that are all vindicated by multiple experiments, performed by many different groups and people, all actively trying to prove the theory false (which is what good scientific experiments are designed to do)—that is a good reason to conclude that the theory is true. In other words, if you repeatedly try to prove something false but can’t, that is a very good indication that it isn’t. The problem of underdeterminationIn reply, those whom van Fraassen calls “empiricists” often point to the “problem of underdetermination.” For any given theory that makes successful predictions about what happens in experimental conditions, there are countless other possible theories that make exactly the same predictions—and since they do, the experimental evidence in question is just as much reason to accept any of those theories as it is to accept our original one. Thus, the argument goes, we have no way of knowing whether our original theory is true, or one of the other “predictively equivalent” theories is true. SUGGESTED VIEWING How Occam's Razor changed the world With Johnjoe McFadden As an example of underdetermination, philosophers often offer this example. The evidence of fossils seems to provide reason to conclude that the universe is quite old; ancient fossils are what the “ancient universe” hypothesis predicts. But it’s also possible that God created an ancient-looking universe 200 years ago, complete with a “fake” fossil record for us to find, to make it look old. The existence of fossils is what that theory predicts too. So, the argument goes, the fossil record can’t be used as evidence that the universe is ancient; the fossil record supports the “200-year-old ancient-looking universe” theory just as much. The problem of underdetermination points out that, for any theory with supporting evidence, we could invent another completely different theory that predicts exactly the same evidence, and thus undermine that evidence’s ability to support the original theory.But this “argument from underdetermination” betrays a fundamental misunderstanding of what scientific reasoning is and how it works. To explain, let me use another rather strange (but very real and commonly discussed) philosophical thought experiment called “The Grue Problem.” The “Grue” ProblemSuppose I want to know what color emeralds are, so I observe a few, see that they all appear green, and form the theory that “all emeralds are green.” I thus predict that the next 100 emeralds I find will also appear to be green. And let’s say that happens, and so I thus conclude that my theory that all emeralds are green is true. Now, one might rightly point out that I don’t know for sure that all emeralds are green—I have not seen them all. Maybe some I haven’t found yet are blue. Fair enough. After all, we used to think that all swans were white, until we found some black ones. But let’s say that I go on a quest and collect every emerald in the universe—and, for the sake of the argument, let’s say I can do this, and can even know that I have every one of them. So, I collect them all, look at them all, and verify that they all appear green. Can’t I now rightly conclude that all emeralds are green?Inspired by the problem of underdetermination, a friend might argue that I cannot.Sure, they all appear green now—but there could be another kind of color called “grue.” Something is grue if it is green up to a certain point in time, but then spontaneously turns blue. And there could be an infinite number of “shades” of grue. Something that is one shade of grue will turn blue at noon today, but something that is another shade of grue will turn blue at noon tomorrow, etc. So yes, the emeralds appear green now; and since they haven’t turned blue yet, they are not some “past” shade of grue. But they might be some “future” shade of grue (e.g., they may turn blue at noon tomorrow). And since all future shades of grue are consistent with “being green up to this point in time,” the evidence you have is completely consistent with the notion that all emeralds are some future shade of grue, rather than green. Indeed, that they would appear green until now is what the “some future shade of grue” hypothesis predicts. So, we have just as much reason to conclude that all emeralds are some shade of grue as we do to conclude that they are green.You’re probably thinking “It’s not equally possible that the emeralds are grue; they are obviously green.” You are right! But explaining why your instinctive reaction to my friend’s argument is correct will help inform why van Fraassen’s “empiricist” is wrong and science actually does describe reality.The main mistake my friend makes is in thinking that the “empirical evidence” (of all the emeralds appearing green) is (or even should be) all I am using to draw the conclusion that all emeralds are green. It is not. I am also considering known facts about how colors typically work; things don’t usually change color, and when they do, they don’t do so suddenly, without cause, and all at once. So, even though the simple evidence of the emeralds all appearing green up to this point is consistent with them being some future shade of grue—that is even what the grue hypothesis “predicts”—it is still exceedingly unlikely that they are. The hypothesis that they are green is much more likely. Understanding science refutes the problem of underdetermination The misunderstanding about science that the “empiricist” pointing to “the problem of underdetermination” makes is similar to the one that my friend made. Science is not just about considering experimental evidence; in fact, it’s not even just about considering empirical evidence. As Ernan McMullin and many other philosophers of science have pointed out, the inference that makes science is “inference to the best explanation” (sometimes called “abduction” or “retroduction” by McMullin). While, depending on the circumstances, scientists use many different kinds of reasoning, science as a whole is, simply put, the process of considering multiple competing explanations and comparing them to certain criteria—explanatory criteria (the kinds of things explanations must be and do, by definition, to be a good explanation)—to see which explanation is the best.And these criteria do not deal only with empirical results. Yes, successful predictions raise the probability of a hypothesis, but it’s also the case that the more new assumptions a theory makes, the less likely it is to be true; every new assumption presents an opportunity for the theory to be false. (The fewer assumptions a theory makes, the simpler or “more parsimonious” it is said to be.) Likewise, the more existing evidence a theory contradicts, the less likely it is, because in order for a theory to be true, every piece of evidence it contradicts has to be somehow faulty. (The fewer established theories a new theory contradicts, the more “conservative” it is said to be.) And, obviously, the more something explains, the better explanation it is. (This is called having “scope.”) If a theory raises unanswerable questions, it’s not expanding our understanding, and thus is not wide-scoping. Scientists consider all these things when deciding which theory to accept, because the theory that adheres best to these explanatory criteria is most likely to be true.___the mere fact that a theory’s predictive success is why it “sticks around” or “becomes accepted” in the scientific community is not a reason to be skeptical about its truth.___The reason the grue hypothesis is no good is because it invents an entirely new kind of color—not just a new shade, but an entirely different category of color (a different way colors work)—and thus is not parsimonious. It raises unanswerable questions about how and why emeralds would just spontaneously change from green to blue (and thus does not have wide scope). And it contradicts what is already well established about how color works (and thus is unconservative).The theories that the problem of underdetermination points to do the same thing. Yes, the theory that God created an “ancient-looking universe” (complete with an ancient-looking fossil record) two hundred years ago is also consistent with the empirical evidence (of a fossil record) that presently exists; but that theory is monumentally unparsimonious (it requires many extra assumptions about infinite entities) and not wide-scoping (it raises unanswerable questions about why God would do such a thing). So, I can rationally conclude that it is false.Indeed, the history of science includes many examples of theories that were rejected because they lacked parsimony and/or scope, even before their falsity (and the truth of their competing theory) was confirmed by observation. As I point out in my book, geocentrism was rejected by the scientific community because it lacked parsimony, almost 200 years before the observation of parallax confirmed that the Earth moves around the sun. And the continuum theory of matter was completely rejected by 1860, because it couldn’t explain chemical reactions or organize matter into a periodic table, even though the experiments that eventually confirmed atomic theory weren’t even proposed until the 1870s. Solving the best of a bad lot problemIn response, the “empiricists” are likely to object, this time pointing to the “best of a bad lot” problem. “We have no reason to conclude that an explanation that has been shown to be better than others is true because we have no guarantee that the true theory was among those that we were considering.” If you have a “lot” (a collection) of poor explanations, even the best one is not true.The responses to this problem, however, are numerous. Peter Lipton argues that the set of hypotheses that scientists consider are not just randomly selected and thus unlikely to contain a theory that is true; they use existing knowledge to home in on what is most likely to be true. A doctor trying to explain abdominal pain is not going to bother wondering whether demons are causing it; they are going to stick with things like appendicitis and kidney stones, because they are most likely. Further, despite its name, inference to the best explanation is not just the process of comparing hypotheses and accepting the best one; we also want one that is a good explanation in its own right. If it’s not, we are going to keep looking until we find an explanation that is. And while that process does not guarantee that we will come across the exact truth, it’s very likely that the theory that emerges as the best will be at least approximately true, and thus we will be justified in believing it. And lastly, as I point out in my book, although many theories not based in scientific evidence (like geocentrism and continuum theory) have been completely overturned, science almost always progresses by the refinement of scientifically established theories—not their replacement. (Although our sun is not the center of the universe, heliocentrism was our first step in understanding the Earth’s true place in the universe.) So even if a theory we accept today may not be completely right, accepting it is a step on the journey toward the complete truth. The example of atomic theoryNow, it’s worth pointing out that most empiricists are not skeptical of all scientific theories; they are only skeptical of the ones that hypothesize the existence of “unobservables.” It’s not like they think that round Earth, heliocentrism, and germ theory are just useful (but untrue) “instruments” for making predictions about how to most efficiently navigate the seas, predict planetary motion, and treat diseases. They admit that the Earth actually is round, that the planets revolve around the sun, and that germs exist and cause disease. These facts and entities can be observed; the theories that suggest they exist are true. It’s only when theories start hypothesizing the existence of unobservables—like electrons, or quantum fields—that can’t be observed directly, that we should start doubting the theories’ truth. And to be fair to van Fraassen, in this published work, he doesn’t really say that we should doubt the truth of such theories. Only that scientific reasoning does not rationally force us to accept them as true. Skepticism, or agnosticism, he argues, is warranted. SUGGESTED READING Science is based in metaphor By Andrew Reynolds But the history of atomic theory throws a monkey wrench into that argument. Atoms used to be unobservable; again, scientists first accepted the theory that they exist because it had such grandiose explanatory power. But then atoms were seen with electron microscopes. They thus moved into the category of the observable. But this didn’t substantially change anything about what scientists were justified in believing; it certainly didn’t change any “atomic skeptics’” minds. It just confirmed what everyone already knew! If the hypothesis that something exists clearly provides the best explanation for what we can observe, then the belief that it exists is what is rational. The fact that the thing itself is not technically observable does not make doubting its existence rational.What’s more, the atoms were seen with an electron microscope. But electrons are themselves unobservable. How can an electron microscope reveal an atom if electrons are not real? This leads us to what is famously known as Hilary Putnam’s “miracle argument.” It’s (not) a miraclePhilosopher Hilary Putnam’s miracle argument is somewhat famous. Basically, he argued that a scientific theory being able to repeatedly make successful predictions—even about unobservables—without being at least approximately true would require a “miracle.” In other words, it would be such an improbable occurrence that it could not rationally be believed—the better explanation for why scientific theories about unobservables make the right predictions is because the unobservable entities and structures they hypothesize exist.Van Fraassen has addressed this argument. Indeed, in his original article, where he references Alison Gopnik’s point about orgasms not being “necessary for procreation” even though the desire for orgasm “drives the creation of progeny,” he is pointing to his own argument about how organisms are not naturally selected by evolution to get true beliefs; to the extent that belief-forming processes are selected for, the ones that are selected are the ones that are useful for survival—not the ones that produce true beliefs. In the same way, van Fraassen argues, scientific theories are accepted, not because they are true, but because they aren’t falsified; they make successful predictions; that’s what makes them “stick around.” So, the fact that they make successful predictions (and thus became accepted) is not a reason to think they are true.This argument is similar to C. S. Lewis’s “argument from reason,” which he used to argue against evolution: “The truth of evolution undercuts our ability to know that it is true.” Lewis’ argument famously failed; Elizabeth Anscombe, by Lewis’s own admission, demolished Lewis in a debate on the topic, and I have explained elsewhere why modified versions of the argument fail as well. In short, it’s because it fails to recognize that a belief-forming process can make an organism more likely to survive because it reliably produces true beliefs. It is therefore not the case that beliefs generated by naturally selected belief-forming processes are automatically false or unjustified.In the same way, the reason a theory “sticks around” could be because it’s not falsified, because it “makes correct predictions.” But the reason it makes correct predictions is most likely because it is true. (In pointing this out, I am echoing the arguments of Musgrave, Lipton, Psillos, and Kitcher, who refuted van Fraassen’s argument and analogy long before his 2024 article.) It would be a huge coincidence that it could do so without being true. And that is the point of Putnam’s miracle argument. Thus, contrary to van Fraassen’s suggestion, the mere fact that a theory’s predictive success is why it “sticks around” or “becomes accepted” in the scientific community is not a reason to be skeptical about its truth. ConclusionLet me close by saying something about the fact that empiricists don’t doubt the truth of all scientific theories, just the ones that hypothesize unobservables. In today’s society, this theory is dangerous to espouse publicly. The nuance between being skeptical about all of science, and just the highly technical theories about unobservables, is guaranteed to be lost to the average reader. And there is so much unjustified skepticism and doubt about the findings of science and experts that a headline like “Science Does Not Describe Reality” could easily fuel the anti-science movement, worsen climate change denial and cause the next pandemic.This is why I believe it was important to still respond to van Fraassen’s article, a full two years after he wrote it. Not only, as I have argued, does it represent a philosophically inaccurate view of how scientific reasoning works and what scientific reasoning can do, but it is a dangerous view to boot. It should thus be rejected.
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