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Turning rising gut health expectations into better health products
Written by Marcelo Durante, Sales & Marketing Director, Clasado Biosciences
Medical school professor wins women faculty award for public health work
Marcella Nunez-Smith, the School of Medicine’s inaugural associate dean for Health Equity Research, was recognized by the Yale Women Faculty Forum for her work in public health equity at a Wednesday event attended by various senior administrators.
Why Texas A&M must rethink its starting quarterback decision
Texas A&M is struggling after a blowout loss to Missouri, and starting QB Marcel Reed for the rest of the season is futile.
No injuries after early morning fire at Elkhart County business
WSBT CBS 22 provides news, sports, entertainment and public interest programs to the South Bend, Indiana area including Mishawaka, Notre Dame, Granger, Osceola, Elkhart, Jimtown, Dunlap, New Carlisle, Goshen, Middlebury, Bristol, New Paris, Nappanee, Howe, Lagrange, Topeka, Bourbon, Milford, Syracuse, North Webster, Warsaw, Bremen, Plymouth, Walkerton, Argos, Tippecanoe, Culver, Grovertown, Delong, Rochester, Akron, Winamac, North Judson, LaPorte, North Liberty, Wakarusa, Lapaz, Millersburg, Knox, and Michigan City, Indiana – and these areas of Michigan: St. Joseph, Benton Harbor, Buchanan, Niles, Three Oaks, New Buffalo, Harbert, Bridgeman, Stevensville, Watervliet, Berrien Springs, Dowagiac, Marcellus, Cassopolis, Decatur, Vandalia, Constantine, White Pigeon, Galien and Edwardsburg.
Marcello Hernández' 'Good Hang' with Amy Poehler is a delight
'SNL' fans, this one's for you.
OVG To Operate, Book Riverview Health Arena in Noblesville, Ind.
The City of Noblesville, Indiana, has announced that Oak View Group will operate and book the 3,400-seat Riverview Health Arena at Innovation Mile. The arena
Computer science student is a CEO before earning diploma
Marcel Slowikowski (’26 computer science) launched an AI startup this summer, months before he earns his computer science degree.
Borussia Dortmund to make ‘another attempt’ to sign Marcel Reguła
After missing out on Marcel Reguła in the summer at the eleventh hour, Borussia Dortmund are set to make another attempt to sign the newly capped Poland international, according to Ruhr Nachrichten, ...
Milestone integration for Goshen Health in century long history
WSBT CBS 22 provides news, sports, entertainment and public interest programs to the South Bend, Indiana area including Mishawaka, Notre Dame, Granger, Osceola, Elkhart, Jimtown, Dunlap, New Carlisle, Goshen, Middlebury, Bristol, New Paris, Nappanee, Howe, Lagrange, Topeka, Bourbon, Milford, Syracuse, North Webster, Warsaw, Bremen, Plymouth, Walkerton, Argos, Tippecanoe, Culver, Grovertown, Delong, Rochester, Akron, Winamac, North Judson, LaPorte, North Liberty, Wakarusa, Lapaz, Millersburg, Knox, and Michigan City, Indiana – and these areas of Michigan: St. Joseph, Benton Harbor, Buchanan, Niles, Three Oaks, New Buffalo, Harbert, Bridgeman, Stevensville, Watervliet, Berrien Springs, Dowagiac, Marcellus, Cassopolis, Decatur, Vandalia, Constantine, White Pigeon, Galien and Edwardsburg.
WholeHogSports Daily Podcast: Protect College Sports Act passes Senate, other news with Brandon Marcello
Matt Jones and Brandon Marcello discuss the week's biggest headlines in college football.
Texas A&M Offense Faces Major Test Against LSU’s Dominant Defense
Texas A&M must protect Marcel Reed, establish the run and finish drives against an LSU defense allowing only 33 rushing yards per game.
Texas A&M Week 4 expert picks for matchup vs. LSU
Experts favor LSU as Texas A&M heads to Baton Rouge looking to rebound from its loss to Kentucky and get a steadier performance from Marcel Reed.
Surprising Short-Notice Welterweight Bout Added to UFC 332
A surprising short-notice welterweight bout has been added to UFC 332, which takes place next Saturday night.As first reported by MMAMania.com, welterweight prospect Jacobe Smith will return to the Octagon to face UFC newcomer Bruce Whitehead in a surprising booking that has MMA fans scratching their heads.Heavy’s Marcel Dorff further confirmed that Smith vs. Whitehead […] The post Surprising Short-Notice Welterweight Bout Added to UFC 332 appeared first on HEAVY.
San Francisco Giants Make Marcelo Mayer Move During Twins Series
The San Francisco Giants certainly have not had the season they’d hoped for by any stretch.They’re coming off a 3-2 loss against the Minnesota Twins on Tuesday night and sit at 65-93 overall with just five games remaining in the regular season.And while these games don’t count for anything and it’s likely most in San […] The post San Francisco Giants Make Marcelo Mayer Move During Twins Series appeared first on HEAVY.
Giants call up Bo Davidson, activate Marcelo Mayer
Bryce Eldridge and Jung Hoo Lee are done for the year.
Confirmed 2. Bundesliga lineups: Energie Cottbus vs. FC St. Pauli
Claus-Dieter Wollitz makes one change from the victory in Karlsruhe as Moritz Hannemann replaces Jannis Boziaris. Marcel Rapp has also made one change after the victory over Wolfsburg last weekend as...
Penguins Hire President of Business Ops Away from Astros
Marcel Braithwaite is an experienced and successful sports executive who has served as senior vice president of the Houston Astros […]
Penguins name new president of business operations under Hoffmann ownership
Marcel Braithwaite joins the Pittsburgh Penguins as president of business operations after 14 years with the Houston Astros.
New Penguins owners hire Astros’ Braithwaite as president of business operations
The Pittsburgh Penguins named longtime Astros exec Marcel Braithwaite president of business operations as the new owners eye upgrades.
The Penguins name a new president of business operations as the Hoffmann era begins
The Penguins named Marcel Braithwaite as the team’s new president of business operations Monday, marking another step in the Hoffmann Family...
Penguins Name Marcel Braithwaite President of Business Operations
Hire marks key addition for Hoffmann Family as they begin first season at the helm of the storied NHL franchise
Texas A&M faces Kentucky with chance to make SEC statement
Texas A&M opens SEC play against Kentucky at Kyle Field, where Marcel Reed and the Aggies will try to turn a 2-0 start into an early conference win.
✍️ Marcelo Gallardo takes over a Brazil rival: the details
Ecuador’s national team announced Marcelo Gallardo as its new head coach for the 2030 World Cup cycle.The River Plate idol will take charge of "La Tri" following the dismissal of fellow Argentine Se...
Niko Kovac calls them “finishers”
With the score 1-0 in the home game against the newly promoted team, Kovac brought on Felix Nmecha, Marcel Sabitzer, and Carney Chukwuemeka just over an hour into the match; Maximilian Beier and Ramy ...
Texas A&M Faces Arizona State Test After Dominant Season Opener
Texas A&M meets Arizona State in a major Week 2 test as Marcel Reed and the Aggies face red-hot quarterback Cutter Boley and the explosive Sun Devils.
Mod Revives Multi-GPU Gaming With Dedicated DLSS 5 GPU for Impressive FPS Gain
If you were around during what many consider the golden age of PC gaming, back when SLI was still possible, and, going back even further, when gamers put dedicated PhysX cards into their PCs, the latest trick shown off by modder, Marcelo Guibout, on YouTube. Guibot showed off a gaming setup using...
Marcel Reed sparks No. 8 Texas A&M in a 50-0 rout of Missouri State
The Aggies thoroughly dominated the game, despite not playing their best.
Pro Football Focus details Texas A&M QB's successful 2026 debut
PFF provided Texas A&M QB Marcel Reed's day through the air on Saturday, detailing his deep throw grade and improved decision making when pressured.
Virginia Tech news: James Franklin blasts 'un-American' flag thrown
The James Franklin era at Virginia Tech has begun. Franklin got to enjoy the Enter Sandman entrance for the Hokies for the first time as the head coach. His team was also dominant, winning 73-3 over VMI. In the third quarter, Marcellous Hawkins Jr. scored on a two-yard run, putting the Hokies up 58-0. Hawkins then went up to one of the members of […] The post Virginia Tech news: James Franklin blasts 'un-American' flag thrown appeared first on ClutchPoints.
Lessons learned from Bremen
“That was a real wake-up call – and perhaps it came at the right time,” was Marcel Schäfer’s assessment of the 3-1 defeat at the Weserstadion. The result left the team with plenty to discuss,...
Texas A&M Reveals Classic Uniform for Missouri State Opener
No. 8 Texas A&M will open 2026 in its traditional maroon-and-white look as Marcel Reed and the Aggies begin a season loaded with playoff expectations.
Texas A&M quarterback Marcel Reed takes shot at Texas
Texas A&M quarterback Marcel Reed took a major shot at Texas recently.
Former Patriots draft pick claimed on waivers by rival Dolphins
The Dolphins have reportedly claimed former Patriots defensive back Marcellas Dial on waivers.
QB Marcel Reed’s offseason bonding push as No. 8 Texas A&M eyes more wins
The senior quarterback says he can name every teammate he’s had in four years with the Aggies and spent the offseason hosting trips and activities for the players.
Northern California casinos bring music, comedy and summer fun
Trombone Shorty, Marcello Hernández and Nate Smith headline a busy stretch of Northern California entertainment from Aug. 17-30.
Mayer Embraces Fresh Start After Joining Giants
Former Boston Red Sox top prospect Marcelo Mayer seeks to revitalize his career after a high-stakes trade deadline move to the San Francisco Giants.
When Will Marcelo Mayer Make his Giants Debut?
The San Francisco Giants are confident Marcelo Mayer won't need long on his rehab assignment, and he could report to the big leagues in less than two weeks.
UFC Vegas 120 Fighter Explains Late Withdrawal
UFC Vegas 120 fighter Jessie Rosas, who was set to make his UFC debut, explained why he was forced to withdraw from the card at late notice. As first reported by Heavy.com’s Marcel Dorff, Rosas was forced to pull out of his featherweight fight for Saturday’s UFC Vegas 120 card against Miles Johns. In his […] The post UFC Vegas 120 Fighter Explains Late Withdrawal appeared first on HEAVY.
Source: The Pirates release Marcell Ozuna, cutting their losses after a disastrous signing
MILWAUKEE — Marcell Ozuna’s time in Pittsburgh has officially come to an end. The Pirates released Ozuna on Wednesday, a source told the Post-Gazette....
Pirates release Marcell Ozuna
After struggling all season, the Pirates are releasing veteran designated hitter Marcell Ozuna. A source confirmed the news to Pittsburgh Baseball Now.
Marcelo Mayer trade grades: Giants banking on change of scenery to help former top Red Sox prospect
Mayer failed to catch on in the majors, but he's still young
Can U.S. Catholicism become Trump’s political religion?
An analysis by Appia Institute’s Marcello Neri argues that the battle over the future of American Catholicism is increasingly intertwined with Donald Trump’s political project—and with competing visions of the Church’s global role
Red Sox may sacrifice Marcelo Mayer or Jarren Duran to land another impact bat
With Boston's thin farm, and having shown their willingness to deal MLB players to get better, these two might be the next to go.
Swiss life science task force with wide-reaching measures to combat MFN policy
A proposal for government price surcharges shows just how far Switzerland is considering going to shield itself from MFN. It shifts the burden, but could preserve the country’s appeal to industry.
Top Ten Opposing Players: Marcel Reed and Colin Simmons
An Aggie and a Longhorn walk into a bar…
Kevin Hart Shares His Marcello Hernández Impression After ‘SNL’ Star Imitated Him on ‘TODAY’ Show
Still Awaiting Full Permit, Work Below Grade Continues At Loyola's Sciences Building
Progress is starting to rise from below grade at Loyola University’s Marcella Niehoff School of Nursing and the College of Arts and Sciences building at 1144 West Loyola Avenue on the Rogers Park campus.
Texas A&M’s 2026 Title Dream Isn’t Crazy ... Just Complicated
Texas A&M enters 2026 with Marcel Reed, a rebuilt line and a loaded defense. The Aggies aren’t title favorites, but their playoff ceiling is very real.
The best and worst moments of Marcello Hernandez hosting the 2026 ESPYs
Highlights included digs at Shane Gillis and Tiger Woods, and a fun moment with Will Ferrell.
The best and worst moments of Marcello Hernandez hosting the 2026 ESPYs
The best and worst moments of Marcello Hernandez hosting the 2026 ESPYs included digs at Shane Gillis and Tiger Woods, and a moment with Will Ferrell.
CR7 challenges Brazilian journalist: he doesn't like me 🎥
Cristiano Ronaldo “challenged” journalist Marcelo Bechler to ask a question during a press conference this Sunday (5), on the eve of the Portugal vs. Spain clash at the World Cup.The forward asked...
Texas A&M’s Marcel Reed impresses in Air‑It‑Out exhibition
Marcel Reed delivered one of the top highlights at the Manning Passing Academy, dropping a perfect deep ball during the Air‑It‑Out exhibition.
How should European scientists respond to the US AI kill switch?
Earlier in June, Europe’s worst fears of technological dependence were confirmed when the White House ordered the AI firm Anthropic to stop non-US citizens using its leading models. This kill-switch moment crystalised anxieties in Brussels that the continent, lagging the US on the creation of leading-edge AI models, is now a technological of vassal of Washington. The shock has specific implications for European scientists and universities. Some governments are now worried that with AI being integrated into labs, Donald Trump now has his finger hovering over an off switch for European science. “Having restrictions on this tool, it can have an impact on our own research,” said France’s research minister, Philippe Baptiste, at the VivaTech conference in Paris on June 18.Baptiste, himself a former academic, said that colleagues in mathematics had recently warned him they were now cut off from leading-edge US models, risking their work. “This model is not available anymore now because of the US restriction, and for the first time this had an impact on mathematics,” a field where large language models (LLMs) are making a significant contribution, said Baptiste. So, should European scientists avoid relying on US models in the future? Or would this be a self-harming overreaction? And how is AI being used in science, anyway? What happened?On June 12, it emerged that Washington, citing cybersecurity concerns, had ordered Anthropic to stop non-US citizens using two models: Claude Mythos 5, and Claude Fable 5, a version of Mythos but with guardrails to prevent abuse. Anthropic said Washington’s concerns were overblown. But forced to follow the order, yet with no way to check who was using the models, the company suddenly shut down access for everyone, US citizens included. There’s still no agreement on how to restore broad access. But last week, Bloomberg reported that select US companies, and the US government, still had access to Mythos despite the ban, but the EU’s cybersecurity agency Enisa had been shut out. Class division of researchersIn the longer term, access outside the US should be restored, said Marcel Salathé, co-director of the AI centre at the Federal Polytechnic School of Lausanne (EPFL), because a permanent restriction would be financially ruinous to US AI firms. “Even Trump will eventually budge to economic pressure,” he said.However, US AI firms might end up operating rather like banks, doing due diligence on users of their leading-edge AI models, he went on.European scientists are unlikely to fall foul of such checks, he said. But having a Chinese postgraduate in their lab, or doing a type of research the US disapproved of, could potentially result in access being denied. “It will create a sort of class division of researchers,” he said. More than frontier modelsHowever, successfully deploying AI in science is about far more than just having access to leading LLMs such as Mythos.Instead, many science-specific tools, most famously Alphafold, which predicts protein folding structures, require “far less” computing power to train than frontier models, well within the capabilities of European supercomputers, according to a recent analysis by the Arq Foundation, a Brussel-based AI think tank. Instead, tools such as Alphafold are possible because certain fields, like protein folding, weather prediction or astronomy, have large, clean, standardised datasets that can be used to train predictive models. Rather than compute, “data is the central constraint for AI for science,” the report says. For example, a less powerful physics model trained on CERN’s data “will be more valuable than the best model without certain data,” said Bengüsu Özcan, author of the report. European advantage?Europe could therefore steal a march by using its scientific data and infrastructure to create models US digital giants cannot. “They might actually match or go even beyond what these big [US] companies are doing,” said Özcan.Indeed, some European start-ups hope to create automated testing labs to create the kind of standardised data that could speed up the discovery of new materials. Materials scientists say there’s currently too little data to train models. AI scientistsHowever, even if the bottleneck for AI in science is often data, rather than compute, being at the mercy of the US for LLM access could still become a problem for European scientists. A new class of “AI scientists” based on leading LLMs is also emerging, Özcan’s report says.Unlike domain-specific tools like Alphafold, these try to automate day-to-day scientific work, by providing an overarching tool that coordinates specific models to synthesise existing literature, generate hypotheses or run analysis of data. The problem for Europe, however, is that these tools are sometimes based on US leading models. Google Deepmind’s AI Co-Scientist, for example, is built on Google’s Gemini LLM. Systematic failureThese scientific automation tools are still in their early stages, and still exhibit “systematic failures on scientific tasks,” Özcan’s report says. One of the problems is that the messy, day-to-day process of scientific discovery is largely not documented, meaning LLMs don’t have a good source of data to learn how scientists actually work. Meanwhile, some tasks, such as literature synthesis, don’t typically require access to leading edge models.However, the performance of AI scientific assistants could improve as companies such as Google pour resources into developing them. Rely on US“Unfortunately, for scientific assistants, there is not much we can do right now except rely on US frontier AI,” said Antoine Bosselut, a natural language processing expert based at EPFL. Chinese-built open models, which can run on local computers, lessening the risk of a shutdown, are touted as one alternative to US dependence. There’s also Mistral, once seen as Europe’s main AI hope, but the Paris-based company has seen its recent models fall behind in performance. But the Chinese alternatives are generally not as capable as US frontier AI models, said Bosselut, unless paired with fiddly, custom tools that allows them to act as independent agents. “Most scientists do not have the time,” he said. Don’t jump ship yetAlthough the kill switch moment is seen a warning shot for European scientists, it doesn’t mean labs should abandon US AI tools immediately. “I do not think the right response is simply to abandon US-based models and systems under the banner of sovereignty or independence,” said Mattias Björnmalm, secretary general of the Cesaer university association. “That would be an overreaction.”Related articlesEuropean sovereignty in AI requires ‘ugly trade-offs,’ say experts Robotic lab start-up makes case for €500M EU-funded materials testing facilityAI in science: is it useful? Instead, European researchers need to ask themselves whether they’re becoming dependent on technology that could be turned off in Washington, said Özcan. “They might not see this today, but they should really start asking this question,” she said. European researchers need a plan B, said Salathé. “I would recommend to every researcher, very proactively explore alternatives.”Own toolsIn addition, Björnmalm and others want European research institutions to develop their own scientific AI tools.Instead of signing AI deals with US digital giants, European universities should be using this money to create their own models, which may end up being superior for research, said Sabine Leonelli, an expert on the use of AI in science at the Technical University of Munich. “Universities in Europe seem to be happy to sign commercial contracts with US companies on the assumption [their AI tools] are better,” she said. But US frontier LLMs are typically opaque, and have been developed without independent scientific input, she said. “This is not good enough for science.”Last year, Swiss researchers released Apertus, an LLM designed to be completely transparent, from its development methods to its training data. The idea is that this makes scientific tools built on top of the model far more reproducible than with closed, commercial alternatives.“Europe needs more of this: serious capacity-building that gives researchers, universities and companies credible options,” said Björnmalm.
Celtic move for defenders Smajlovic & Saracchi
Celtic and Olympiacos have had bids of £3.5m for centre-back Zinedin Smajlovic rejected by Sandefjord, who want closer to £4.3m for the 22-year-old. Meanwhile, Celtic are set to intensify talks with Boca Juniors over a permanent deal for Marcelo Saracchi after the 28-year-old left-back was told by head coach Rodolfo Arruabarrena he is not in his plans after his loan to the Scottish champions. Reported Celtic transfer target Soufiane El-Faouzi is poised to sign a new contract with Schalke until 2030 that will hand the 23-year-old midfielder an annual salary of nearly £1m.
Uruguay XI vs Saudi Arabia – Predicted lineup and team news
Uruguay launch their World Cup campaign against Saudi Arabia in Miami on Monday.La Celeste aim to secure a dominant victory in this Group H opener. Marcelo Bielsa has implemented a high-pressing tacti...
‘SNL’s’ Marcello Hernández to host 2026 ESPYs as show leaves L.A.
Marcello Hernández will host the 2026 ESPY Awards, which are are leaving L.A. for New York after more than 25 years.
The cult of objectivity has broken consciousness science
With 22 competing theories and no consensus in sight, the science of consciousness is lost. In this exclusive IAI interview, Berkeley psychedelics researcher and bestselling author of a new book on consciousness Michael Pollan insists that even though consciousness lies beyond traditional forms of scientific investigation, we should resist becoming dualists who see it as something radically different from ordinary stuff in the world. Instead, he makes the case for reimagining science itself: it must stop reaching for objective descriptions of physical reality, and instead embrace subjectivity as the indispensable core of all inquiry. Alasdair Craig: How did your experiences with psychedelics get you interested in consciousness?Michael Pollan: One of the things that happens on psychedelics is that they foreground consciousness. What formerly seemed perfectly transparent and ever present—and yet, non-existent, as water is to fish—suddenly you see it. The metaphor I use in the book is that psychedelics sponge the windscreen. Suddenly you realize: wow, there’s a windscreen, there is this phenomenon that’s mediating my relationship to reality. This is not an unusual realization on psychedelics. I think a lot of people are called to think about consciousness after psychedelic experiences. So that was the proximate inspiration for A World Appears: A Journey Into Consciousness (2026).And then there was a more specific way in which psychedelics influence the book. That was a particular experience I had on psilocybin. I had the sensation that the plants in my garden were conscious and returning my gaze, with their own point of view and agency, and I got curious as to how to evaluate an insight like that. I mean, what’s the truth quotient of insights you have on psychedelics? And I was reading William James—who, of course, wrote beautifully about mystical experience—and he said, we can’t judge the metaphysics here, but we should pay attention to two criteria: (1) How useful is it to think this is true? He was a pragmatist, of course. And (2) can we subject it to other ways of knowing to validate it? Because maybe we should treat these insights as hypotheses. And that’s kind of how I approach psychedelics, as a great generator of hypotheses, but they need to be tested against other ways of knowing. And so that led me down this long path exploring the science of plant intelligence and plant sentience.AC: I love your phrase, “smudging the windowpane of conscious experience.” So do you now start to think, actually, even when I’m not on psychedelics, I’m just seeing a screen all the time, which is not reality, but rather is my conscious experience, behind which reality is hidden?MP: Well, you know, not when I’m brushing my teeth and making breakfast! But yes, in meditation, certainly. I mean, one of the things you realize is that my experience happens to be this way now, but it could be another way. And many things can affect it. My morning coffee changes the screen in various ways, sharpens certain things.___The only tool we have to understand consciousness is consciousness.___There’s this wonderful metaphor in Aldous Huxley’s book, The Doors of Perception, where he thinks we channel consciousness, and that what the brain does is edit it, and there’s a reducing valve. And psychedelics open the reducing valve wider. I don’t know that I’m ready to buy into the idea that consciousness exists outside brains, but I do love that metaphor because there are times when you are more conscious than others. I know I’ve switched from window pane to valve, but you know, a camera aperture can open wider or narrower. And I do have a sense of that. I have a sense of when I’m being less conscious, and when I’m being more conscious, by which I mean, you know, more present, taking in more sensory information. So when you start thinking about consciousness as a matter of degree, that changes things also.I think when we scroll on social media, obviously, we’re conscious. But minimally so, because we don’t have to generate our own thoughts. We’re basically taking these little hits from other people and thinking their thoughts.The process of writing this book made me kind of relativize everyday consciousness as just one type, which is exactly what William James said. Normal consciousness is one type, separated by the flimsiest of screens from the other types.AC: If we stick with the metaphor of the smudge on the window that you get when you take psychedelics, it seems like we’re saying that consciousness has become like an object that you’re looking at, right? You’re looking at the smudge and that just is consciousness. But sometimes we’ll talk about consciousness as a state that you’re in, rather than an object you can perceive. You’re either conscious or you’re not conscious. So it’s difficult to really know what sort of thing we’re talking about when we talk about consciousness, right?MP: Yeah. When you say that consciousness is an object, what’s the subject? Consciousness also? The only tool we have to understand consciousness is consciousness. So we’re in a closed loop and when we get a perspective on consciousness, we’re not achieving any distance from it. That’s one of the problems with studying consciousness. Science is predicated on an objective, God’s eye view of things, and you never get that. There’s no such thing. SUGGESTED VIEWING The brain filters consciousness With Àlex Gómez-Marín But, yeah, there is this sense, I think, that consciousness is something you can approach. Certainly, when you’re writing and trying to recreate a conscious experience, it’s a fiction, but you’re standing back from it, and looking at it. But there’s no real subject-object distinction.AC: That’s so interesting, because when philosophers start talking about consciousness, they often talk about what they call “qualia”, which is their word for the felt experience of, say, the color red. And I think that way of speaking often makes us think of the qualia as an object, which you can see out there: the redness of red. But, as you say, we also want to collapse the subject-object distinction when we talk about consciousness. So there’s something strange going on here…MP: Oh, yeah, there are many strange things going on! *AC: Let’s talk about the varieties of consciousness. Apart from perceptions, there are, pains, emotions, thoughts, and so on. What is it that holds all this diversity together so that they all count as instances of consciousness? What is it that they all have in common?MP: Yeah, that’s a really good question. I mean, there is sensory information, right? Which we perceive coming from the world outside ourselves. And then there’s internal information, which is what’s called interoception. And this is very important too. This is where feelings come from—what are sometimes called homeostatic feelings—that are intended to get the brain to keep us in these narrow ranges of temperature and glucose and so on. That’s a very important part of consciousness. And according to some researchers, who I think are probably right, this is where consciousness begins, with these very primal feelings, like hunger and thirst and warmth and itch, and things like that. And then there’s this third thing, which is our thinking about thinking.And what holds all this together is, I think, the sense of self. Consciousness generates a self: it is probably an organizing principle. All this stuff is happening to the self. It’s a construct, I think, but it is very useful. It can connect all these different streams of consciousness to a single being or a place, metaphorically speaking.* AC: The first half of your book is about the science of consciousness. Is consciousness just another thing, like black holes or the origin of life, which we don’t yet understand, but which we should have every hope that science will one day get to the bottom of, or is there something special about consciousness that makes this unlikely?MP: It depends how you define science. As we define science now, it’s going be very difficult. Science since Galileo has had a set of rules or assumptions, which is that the proper remit of science is to deal with the objective, quantifiable, third-person world. And the physical sciences have done amazing work under that set of limitations. Galileo—for tactical reasons, not for philosophical reasons—said science should not deal with the soul, which at the time was what consciousness was considered to be. So what is subjective, what is qualitative, what is first person, we’re going to leave to the church, he said. And this was a good agreement, and it probably kept many scientists from getting burned at the stake. But it leaves science in an awkward spot, now that it wants to venture into that territory of qualities, of first-person experience. And I don’t think it has the proper tools. I think it will have to add to its toolkit in some way, and find a way to bring in phenomenology, or lived experience and introspection, which science is usually dismissive of.The challenge—we alluded to it earlier—is that the only tool you have to study consciousness with is consciousness. And what I mean by that is, the whole scientific enterprise is a manifestation of consciousness. As much as scientists like to flatter themselves with this idea that they attain a godlike perspective on what they study, when it comes to consciousness, there’s no such thing. And it’s fine for all the things you can step outside of and study from that perspective. But two areas it won’t work are consciousness and cosmology.___It could be that we live in this anomaly of not believing nature is conscious. And maybe psychedelics are teaching us something we’ve forgotten.___With cosmology, too, you have to study the universe from inside the universe. It’s not that cosmologists haven’t made progress. We know a lot about the age of the universe and expansion and things like that. But we can’t penetrate what happened before the Big Bang. We just don’t have the tools because we can’t stand outside.The fact that there are 22 full-scale theories of consciousness tells you all you need to know: we’re kind of lost. And I was surprised to find that we are more lost than I thought we were when I started this. I thought that there’d be leading theories, or that we had experiments that we could conduct that would nail some of this down. And the fact is, we don’t.So, I don’t know if science can solve it. But, of course, we can change the rules of science. A really influential book for me was a book called The Blind Spot, by two physicists, Marcello Gleiser and Adam Frank, and a philosopher, Evan Thompson. It’s a reminder that science is a social practice. It’s organized in a certain way and it can be organized in a different way. But it has this huge blind spot at the center of it, which is its failure to recognize that it is a form of consciousness itself, and it doesn’t have a good way of taking account of lived experience.AC: On the one hand, I think you want to resist traditional dualism, which would say that consciousness is something magical, something supernatural, right? But on the other hand, you’re accepting that there is this division in reality between the stuff that you can investigate objectively and measure, and so on—the stuff that science has been good at finding out about—and consciousness, which, for some reason, you can’t objectively measure. Some would take this to suggest that the dualism is actually right. Is there a way of reconciling these two strands of your thinking?MP: To call it magical is full of value judgement. I mean, you could just say immaterial. The interesting thing is, I think, that intuitively we’re all dualists. And I don’t know whether that’s because we’re children of Descartes and other cultures are less dualist than we are. Or it may be because that’s how consciousness feels. It feels different than the body. It feels separate from the body. But I don’t think we should trust that intuition.AC: So let’s think about ways that science might be changed to get at consciousness. I suppose the starting point would be the way that you begin the second half of your book. You have this nice line from William James, where he says, “We now begin our study of the mind from within.” Could you give us some sense of the ways of studying the mind from within? What does this involve?MP: I don’t know what that science looks like. But one of the points I’m making is that it depends on the humanities. I found that I learned as much, if not more, about consciousness, from reading novels and poetry. There is a sense of the fullness and complexity of consciousness that you don’t get in any scientific account. I interviewed this stream-of-consciousness writer and I approached her as an expert on consciousness, and she is. So I think that dialogue is really important.I’m reading Ben Lerner’s new novel, Transcription. Just read the first page of this novel: it’s a man falling asleep on a train, going to conduct an interview, and there is the experience of being in the train, facing backwards, there’s the view outside, but there’s a reflection of himself through which he’s seeing outside. There’s the memory of dropping his kids off at school. All this is going on in one moment of consciousness. Scientists aren’t going anywhere near that. But I think it’s useful for them to think about. That’s where we’re trying to go: like, how does such a layered experience happen? You know, it also makes you wonder, could a computer ever do this? And it gives you some doubt.*AC: Before we get to computers, perhaps we could talk briefly about plants. How did you come to feel that they are sentient?MP: Well, it was a psychedelic experience, and it’s not unusual on psychedelics. In fact, there’ve been studies about how people become animists during psychedelic experience. Their belief in animism arises after a single psychedelic experience.You know, most scientists would say this is all a myth. But we have only 400 years of the age of enlightenment and science. Before that, we were animists, and if you go around the world, most indigenous cultures are still animists, and children are animists, by and large, until they go to school. So it could be that we live in this anomaly of not believing nature is conscious. And maybe psychedelics are teaching us something we’ve forgotten.As I said, I wanted to test this idea, and see whether there was conventional scientific evidence for it. And there’s fascinating work going on in a field that calls itself—in a rather cheeky way—plant neurobiology. These are people who fully realize there are no neurons in plants, but they’re trolling conventional botanists! And they’re doing experiments that are demonstrating that plants can learn and remember, which is kind of amazing: how do you store a memory without neurons? They’re finding plants that can solve problems, that can hear and see. In fact, they have 20 senses to our five or six. For example, a bean plant looking for something to twine, and given a pole within eight inches or so of it, knows where that pole is and will aim its spiraling reach at that pole. What is that about? Is it bouncing signals off of it?One of the spookiest things is the fact that the same anesthetics that put us out put plants out. You might think that plants are already out, but they’re not. They’re just slow. If you take a plant with a fast behavior, like a Venus flytrap, and give it an anesthetic, it will stop reacting. So you have to ask yourself, what is lost when the plant is anaesthetized? Some state of alertness, of awareness, of its environment, of reactivity. I’m not prepared to call that consciousness, but maybe it’s sentience—which is a simpler form of consciousness, and involves the ability to sense what’s going on in your environment and assess what’s good and bad for you and act appropriately. That may be a universal quality of life.AC: Let’s turn from plants to AI. You point out that LLMs are trained on the internet rather than direct interactions with reality. You put this really nicely when you say the internet is not the world so much as a shadow cast by the world. So LLMs are living in this kind of shadow world, or in Plato’s cave, as you put it. What’s the significance of this for AI consciousness and moral consideration? And, to recall the beginning of our conversation, if we’re stuck behind a veil or screen of consciousness, are we also stuck in a kind of shadow world?MP: I don’t think they’re the same shadow worlds because our world includes nature and other people. And even if it’s mediated in some ways... There is a reality out there, and we are in relation to it, through consciousness. There’s friction with it. What’s missing from the LLMs is that friction with the real world. There’s more to the world than human representation, which is what they’re dealing with. And that means that so far, AI is a cultural technology for combining thoughts we’ve already had. SUGGESTED VIEWING Cracking the code for thought With Roger Penrose, Sabrina Gonzalez Pasterski, Max Tegmark, Güneş Taylor Genuine creativity is more than collage. A lot of what AI does now is tantamount to collage, putting this with that and you know, that’s part of art, certainly. But there are also genuinely new ideas that come into the world that don’t come in through manipulating the representations we already have. So it remains to be seen whether AIs can be truly creative in that more radical sense.But my arguments against AI becoming conscious have to do with the fact that the idea of AI consciousness is based on this faulty metaphor that the brain is a computer. There are dimensions in which the brain is like a computer—it certainly does its share of computation. But computers have this sharp distinction between hardware and software, and brains don’t. In a brain, hardware and software are identical. Every memory is a physical change to the brain. Brains are not interchangeable in the way computers are. So this idea that you could take the consciousness out and somehow run it on another substrate, a silicon substrate, seems foolhardy.Anyway, it’s a more extended argument, and I may be wrong. And when we move to computers that aren’t based on silicon—neuromorphic computers and things like that—all bets may be off.AC: Regarding your point about LLMs being stuck in the world of our representations—the internet or whatever—and not being able to interact with reality, are these representations, the world of the internet, themselves part of reality? We’ve created the internet, but it’s still a real thing that exists. And so while the LLMs may be trapped within that part of reality, they’re nevertheless within reality and interacting with it and so on. So it’s not obvious that there’s a barrier there to them becoming conscious and being creative.MP: Yeah, I mean, if our consciousness is built out of human culture, which is what we’re talking about with all those representations. But I tend to think consciousness comes a bit more out of nature and friction with the natural world, but...AC: So there’s a fundamental divide between the natural world and human artefacts?MP: And we lose track of that, and especially people in this computer world. You know, the people who are creating these AI systems, my guess is they’ve been into video games since the age of three, and they didn’t go outside a lot. And their own contact with nature is somewhat limited. I could be wrong, it’d be a very interesting thing to ask, all the wizards of AI, whether they like to go fishing and hiking and do things like that. Or were they on computers from a very early age? I interviewed Blake Lemoine, the Google engineer who came to believe that LaMDA, the Google LLM out at the time, was conscious and deserved personhood. It was very clear that he didn’t see a distinction between this bubble in which he lived and the real world. And I think we’ve all been distanced from the natural world, and this is taking us even further away. But it’s still there, you know, and we still have bodies, and we’re still mortal, and we don’t live in a simulation.AC: I think that’s a great place to finish. Michael Pollan, thank you very much!
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