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L’Oréal Names 2026 For Women in Science Award Winners
Dr. Clarissa Do Ó of Caltech receives a 2026 L’Oréal For Women in Science award for her research into detecting Earth-like exoplanets.
'Food Is Medicine' Shows Fixing the Food System Is a Public Health Priority
Food Is Medicine by Dr. Dariush Mozaffarian offers a path toward a healthier food system that benefits people, communities, and the planet.
World's first round-trip mission to Mars has launched — why it could be a 'transformative leap' for science
The Martian Moons Exploration (MMX) mission, which launched from Japan on Oct. 19, is on its way to Mars. When it arrives, the probe will attempt to land on one of the Red Planet's twin moons and scoop up rocks to bring back to Earth. Experts tell Live Science what these "transformative" samples could teach us.
Climate change is literally altering the shape of our planet
The melting of the poles is increasingly shifting Earth's shape at a faster rate, with the planet becoming more and more round.
PlayStation Store “Planet of the Deals” Sale Now Live With Over 3,500 Entries
Sony has launched a new PlayStation Store sale for November, and this one is called Planet of Deals. There are over 3,500 items in total for the sale, with a…
Pocket Planet Canada Takes Immersive Entertainment to New Heights With Everest: The First Ascent
The Everest: The First Ascent VR experience opens at Pocket Planet Canada in downtown Toronto on November 10. ...
40+ PS5, PS4 Games to Buy in PS Store's Planet of the Deals Sale
Recommended games going cheap
Science News unveils its list of 10 scientists making an impact on our world
As a teenager, Gabriela Farfan became fascinated by the shapes and colors of minerals. Now, as curator of gems and minerals at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, she studies what they can reveal about our planet.From corals that preserve chemical signatures of changing oceans to sparkling gemstones, Farfan uses crystal structures, chemistry and spectroscopy to uncover the information trapped inside minerals and show why they’re an essential part of natural history. WASHINGTON, O
Astronauts’ hearts just passed a surprising test for Mars
A new study tracking 13 astronauts suggests that the human heart may be surprisingly well equipped for a journey to Mars, especially with regular exercise during spaceflight. Researchers found that astronauts' hearts adapted to months of weightlessness and handled simulated Martian gravity without major problems, offering new hope for future missions to the Red Planet.
From fun to fear: How harsh coaching affects mental health for student athletes
Research shows 1 in 4 athletes face abusive coaching. Metro Detroit teens and psychologists share how harsh tactics affect mental health and performance.
Coming to XBOX Game Pass: Final Fantasy VII Remake Intergrade, The Séance of Blake Manor, and More
Ghosts to question and a planet to save. Sounds like a perfectly reasonable few weeks to me! We have another batch of games coming soon to Game Pass, so clear a little room in that “Play Next List” and let’s get to it!
Op-Ed | Nourishing the World: Expanding Humanity’s Ambition for Food, Health, and the Planet
Nourishing the world is a universal ambition, and its expression must reflect the diversity of people and places.
'We used to go to the climate conferences together. We are not anymore': ESA official Simonetta Cheli tells us how the political landscape for Earth observation is changing
Live Science sat down with the European Space Agency's Simonetta Cheli to discuss the importance of Earth observation, how NASA budget cuts have changed the picture, and how the proliferation of private satellites could hinder our ability to view the planet.
Who speaks for Mars? Scientists call for ethical debate before terraforming begins
Transforming Mars into a more Earth-like world could irreversibly destroy scientific evidence about the planet's history and the possibility of extraterrestrial life. In an opinion article published in ...
Duo Andalus Will Perform in Wellfleet
As part of Cape Symphony Presents “Secret Planet Cape Cod” music series, Duo Andalus will play at Wellfleet Preservation Hall on Saturday, November 7, at 7 PM.
Returning samples from a Mars moon: Inside the science of Japan's bold MMX mission
MMX could be the first spacecraft to ever return from orbit around the Red Planet.
“Something out of Science Fiction” – Astronomers Discover a Star That Glows a Bizarre Shade of Green
A star’s color usually reflects its temperature, but white dwarfs can break that pattern, with models revealing unexpected shades of green, pink, and purple. A star that has drawn in rocky debris from its planetary system would appear chartreuse green to the human eye, according to new calculations by University of Warwick astronomers. As far
Scientists Find Evidence That Earth's Core Is Still Leaking Hydrogen, Helium and Tungsten
When Earth first formed, around 4.5 billion years ago, it was an extremely hot, largely molten planet. As it cooled, heavier materials sank to form the core, while lighter materials formed the mantle and crust.
Earth's Core Is Leaking All Sorts of Materials That Have Been Trapped Since Our Planet's Birth
Earth is belching up the materials of the Solar System's birth.
Father-Daughter Family Business Navigates Millennial and Boomer Gaps
I’ve learned that boomers and millennials live on different workplace planets. But it’s one of the most-rewarding experiences I’ve ever had.
Has there ever been a mountain taller than Everest?
Mount Everest may be the king of the planet today, but has Earth ever thrust a larger mountain from its surface?
Top global climate science body suspends meeting without deal on major review timeline
By Sudarshan VaradhanA meeting of the members of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was suspended without an agreement on a timeline to publish its next review of the latest science on the warming planet, the IPCC said on Friday.The impasse over the timeline, which has lasted near…
Top Global Climate Science Body Meet Ends Without Deal on Review Timeline
By Sudarshan Varadhan and Kate Abnett Oct 16 (Reuters) - The meeting of the members of the world's leading authority on climate change ended on Friday without an agreement on a timeline to publish its next review of the latest science on the warming planet, four sources familiar with the ...
Top global climate science body meet ends without deal on review timeline
By Sudarshan Varadhan and Kate AbnettThe meeting of the members of the world's leading authority on climate change ended on Friday without an agreement on a timeline to publish its next review of the latest science on the warming planet, four sources familiar with the matter said.The meeting of rep…
Scientists find 'gemstones' in atmosphere of bizarre, scorching-hot 'marshmallow' exoplanet
"Planets are temperamental, their atmospheres complex and chaotic."
'I found the biggest ever haul of organics on Mars.' Meet the scientist at the centre of the search for life on the Red Planet | BBC Sky at Night Magazine
Dr Amy Williams and her team discovered the largest collection of organic compounds on Mars in a sample collected by the Curiosity rover.
How did political campaigns get so expensive?
The 2026 midterm elections are fast approaching, and it’s gearing up to be the most expensive election in American history. So how did we get here, where every election feels more expensive than the last? Today on the show, we’re exploring what’s causing the flood of money into our politics. Fact checking by Sierra Juarez.Your Next Listen –Bad economics, smart politics –Over 2,000 episodes in our archive on the NPR AppConnect with The Indicator from Planet Money–The Indicator newsletter — a weekly roundup of news, ideas and staff picks. –Instagram, TikTok and YouTube –Find the Planet Money book –Find the Planet Money game, Sell Me A Sasquatch, and other merch at the NPR Shop!Support public media by subscribing to NPR+ and enjoy perks for over 25 podcasts like this one. This show’s perks include sponsor-free listening. Learn more at plus.npr.org.
Planetary genealogy: Milky Way worlds belong to 1 of 2 ‘families,’ scientists find
"There is a genetic link between planetary systems and their stars, and that, depending on the star around which they are born, this link also determines their fate."
WWF LPR Living Planet Report 2026
October, 2026.- For the launch of WWF’s Living Planet Report 2026, NOMINT worked closely with WWF to create a creative
Gran Turismo Spec IV Update Part 1 Arrives Tomorrow: All Confirmed Features & Content
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IQjemMrk4Wk It's felt like long wait since series creator Kazunori Yamauchi surprisingly announced the Gran Turismo 7 Spec IV update six weeks back, but the first part of it is now in sight with the update confirmed to arrive tomorrow, Thursday October 15. For
2026 State of the Climate Report Shows a Planet Reaching Its Limits
The seventh edition of an annual report analyzing Earth’s "planetary vital signs” indicates that Earth systems are rapidly destabilizing, some at an accelerating rate. The report, published today in BioScience, analyzed 16 of these signs, including greenhouse gas emissions levels, ocean heat content and acidity, the mass of major ice sheets, the number of hot days, Earth's surface temperature, and more.
Earth May Not Be The Best Planet For Life, Scientists Say Better Worlds Could Exist
Researchers are particularly interested in planets orbiting orange K-dwarf stars, which could support life for billions of years longer than our Sun.
Scientists may have finally solved the mystery of the Moon’s two faces
Scientists may have solved a long-standing mystery about why the Moon’s two sides are so different, using samples collected from its farside for the first time. Their findings suggest that uneven heating from Earth's gravitational pull drove enormous flows of ancient magma, creating the dramatically different lunar landscapes we see today.
*POSTPONED* Behind the Science with Paleontologist and Curator of Dinosauria Dr. Matthew Carrano
***Due to speaker illness, this event has been postponed. A new date will be announced in two weeks. If you registered for this program, please check your email for more information. We apologize for the inconvenience.*** Is the 21st Century the real Age of Dinosaurs? Today, more paleontologists are discovering more dinosaur fossils from more places in the world than ever before. Our understanding of these amazing creatures has leapt forward while their popularity has surged. Museums sit at the junction of these phenomena. The Smithsonian has been a center for dinosaur research for more than a century, and its collections include many iconic and scientifically important specimens. Today, Smithsonian researchers continue to discover new dinosaurs, but they are also uncovering more information about the ones we already know and love. New techniques and approaches allow them to investigate aspects of dinosaur biology, ecology, and evolution in ways that would have been inconceivable to early paleontologists. The result is an ever-improving understanding of dinosaurs as living, breathing, and thriving animals. This month, go behind the science with paleontologist Dr. Matthew Carrano, Curator of Dinosauria at the National Museum of Natural History as he discusses new discoveries at home and abroad, in the field and in the museum. Registration is encouraged. Space is filled on a first come first served basis. ---------------- About the Series: Behind the Science A monthly after-hours series featuring NMNH scientists and researchers Each month, join the National Museum of Natural History for the new series, Behind the Science, where NMNH researchers share insights into their latest discoveries and explore the fascinating questions driving their work—from the origins of life to the future of our planet. Come learn what’s happening behind the scenes and how science shapes our understanding of the natural world. Programs take place in Q?rius, the Coralyn W. Whitney Science Education Center. Topics and speakers announced on a rolling basis, but save the dates now!
Remembering Michael Gaffey
World-renowned asteroid researcher left lasting mark on UND, planetary science and generations of students
Shabazz Palaces, with help from Digable Planets collaborators, crafts new album
Shabazz Palaces returns with “It’s a Style Sport,” which was recorded at Seattle’s Hall of Justice.
DeAPlaneta Entertainment and Tiger Studio to Relaunch Pucca
The collaboration comes in time for the 20th anniversary and will drive a new cycle of content.
Review: Planet Zoo 2 (PS5) - Sublime Wildlife Management Sim Is Frontier at Its Finest
Something to sink your teeth into
Varying Water Clouds Detected Beyond The Solar System For The First Time – And They’re Not Around A Planet
Just a few times larger than Jupiter, with water clouds? It sounds like WISE 0855 is applying for honorary planet status.
Trump targets Ilhan Omar at rally following raid on her home
President says Somalia, birthplace of the Minnesota Democratic congresswoman, is ‘one of the worst countries on the planet’
There’s Worlds Out There More Habitable Than Earth
Scientists believe there are planets outside our solar system where life is even more abundant and sustainable.
Scientists Reaffirm “Incontrovertible” Evidence of Human Influence on Climate
In response to a "deeply flawed" US government report, scientists have published an outline detailing the credibility of climate fingerprinting research and advances in the field since 2009.
Kyle Gordon on "Mr. Jambo", "Planet of the Bass", and His Dream Music Collab
"If you thought I was only this, I'm gonna do something completely different now!"
The Beef Industry Knew: Cattle Trade Group Knew Cows Warmed the Planet Since 1989. It Tried to Bury the Science
Newly examined records reveal how the cattle lobby tried to undermine an early climate warning.
Scientists Predicted Humanity Would End on November 13, 2026. Should We Be Worried?
For decades, a doomsday equation predicted population growth better than most experts, until falling birth rates undermined its forecast of catastrophe in 2026. In 1960, Science, one of the world’s leading science journals, published an article with an unambiguous title: Doomsday: Friday, 13 November, A.D. 2026. It predicted that on this future date—just over a
Scientists reaffirm ‘incontrovertible’ evidence of human influence on climate
The scientific evidence for human-caused global warming is stronger than ever, according to a major new review in Earth’s Future, AGU’s journal for research on the state of the planet and its inhabitants, sustainable and resilient societies, the science of the Anthropocene and predictions of our common future – despite a United States government report questioning the science.
NASA may already have proof life once existed on another planet. Scientists might never get to find out
US officials canceled NASA’s ambitious Mars Sample Return program, leaving potential evidence of ancient life sitting on Mars. Could China beat them to it?
An Earth-Sized Planet Could Survive With 2 Suns Just 16 Light-Years Away
"It's a mix of disappointment and excitement."
HIT Brings Aerospace Science Popularization Books and Metaverse Courses to Multiple Schools
Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT) HARBIN, China, Oct. 12, 2026 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- "Through science popularization books and metaverse courses, I followed digital humans to disassemble the structure of planetary rovers...
Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History Celebrates National Earth Science Week
SANTA BARBARA, Calif. (KEYT) — Fossils, minerals and discoveries about our planet will take center stage at the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History
Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History Celebrates National Earth Science Week
SANTA BARBARA, Calif. — Fossils, minerals and discoveries about our planet will take center stage at the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History during
EU leads fight against fossil-fuel nations’ push to delay climate science reports
Dispute looms over next review of the latest science on the warming planet as temperatures continue to rise
Kitt Peak National Observatory honors Tohono O’odham land, language by renaming science center
Long before the National Science Foundation ever looked up to the starry sky searching for answers about the mysterious cosmos and universe, O’odhams like Jacelle Ramon-Sauberan stood atop I’oligam Du’ag — or Manzanita Shrub Mountain.
Next Week on XBOX: New Games for October 12 to 16
Next Week on XBOX: Castlevania: Belmont's Curse, Planet Zoo 2, Valor Mortis, Warhammer 40K: Boltgun II, and more coming soon!
“He fits on any basketball team on the planet. You …
“He fits on any basketball team on the planet. You …
Inside the deadlock at the world's top climate science body
The decision was expected to take minutes. But after nearly three years of debate, members of the world’s leading authority on climate change still can’t agree on a timeline to publish its next review of the latest science on the warming planet.
Rising from the ashes: Scientists have found a phoenix planet
This exoplanet is orbiting the dead star it formed from
Center for Human and Planetary Health celebrates second anniversary
Over 150 people attended the event focused on combatting climate change and protecting human health.
Living Planet Report 2026
Every plant, animal, fungus and microorganism on Earth is part of a single living system, and we are part of it too. Biodiversity, the variety of life and the ecological relations
Vermont’s ‘slopaganda’ problem
After a successful challenge of Vermont's AI political media law, computer-generated election satire continues to make waves.
How athletic identity shapes students on, off the field
Michigan coaches help student athletes build identities beyond sports, as most face career endings after college.
Artemis II Moon Flyby: Lunar Science Results Highlighted
More than 800 gigabytes of Artemis II lunar science data – some of it previously unreleased – was released today, posted to NASA’s Planetary Data System. Most of the images from the mission were previously made public – although this Oct. 7 release is the official data archive with high resolution imagery and robust metadata. […]
1,000-mile-long cloud that forms and vanishes on Mars every day obeys 'exotic physics' never seen on Earth
New simulations suggest that the perplexing Arsia Mons Elongated Cloud (AMEC) repeatedly emerges in the Red Planet's skies thanks to a never-before-seen meteorological process.
'Completely unexpected': Astronomers spy never-before-seen 'phoenix planet' rising from the ashes of a dead star
Astronomers have spotted a rare "second-generation" exoplanet closely orbiting the nearby white dwarf HS 0209+0832. An unusual mixture of heavy elements inside this zombie star suggests that "this system has given birth to a new world using the foundations of the old one."
A quake on Mars may have set these rocks rolling
Fresh boulder tracks on Mars could reveal how a quake shook the planet and help scientists detect future tremors from orbit.
Did you know Uranus has rings? The story of how scientists made a huge discovery by accident – and triggered an emergency response in the process | BBC Sky at Night Magazine
The story of how astronomers discovered rings around the planet Uranus, as told by one of the team on a long-haul flight that day.
Film Festival Will Screen ‘Beyond The Duplex Planet’
The Woods Hole Film Festival’s Dinner & A Movie series continues on Saturday, October 17, with “Beyond The Duplex Planet,” a new feature documentary by Emmy-winning, Grammy-nominated filmmaker Beth Harrington.
Webb finds a surprising atmosphere on a scorching lava world
The James Webb Space Telescope has found strong evidence that the rocky lava world HD 3167 b has an atmosphere, despite circling its star every 24 hours under extreme heat. The surprising discovery could help scientists understand how rocky planets retain atmospheres and what the young, molten Earth may once have looked like.
Earth's magnetic field: An enigma that could affect how long we live
Generated by a vast dynamo-like churn of molten iron in the Earth’s core, the magnetic field that surrounds the planet protects its surface and everything on it from space radiation as well as helping...
The world's oyster reefs could add $12 trillion to planetary health each year—if they were better managed
A new study shows that the world's oyster reefs are a precious resource that's vastly underestimated and underutilized. The authors set out to calculate the reefs' potential gross ecosystem product (GEP), ...
Scientists Create Hexagonal Packed Ice At Extreme Pressures
One of the problems with planetary science is that you generally cannot easily investigate the exact conditions in their interior, so you’re left to extrapolate what is happening inside them …
Scientists find planet made on new matter recipe, and it formed after a Red Giant ate a solar system
Death of a star may not be game over for the inner solar system after all
Set your alarm: Jupiter will disappear behind the crescent moon in a once-in-a-decade alignment tomorrow
Skywatchers in the U.S. and eastern Canada can see a rare lunar occultation of Jupiter early on Oct. 6. Here are the exact times to see the giant planet vanish and reappear.
Dead star likely birthed a new planet, in astronomical first
A white dwarf probably created a rare ‘second-generation’ planet.
Planet Fitness acquires Bakersfield’s Body Xchange Health Club locations
Body Xchange Health Clubs announced that they have been acquired by Planet Fitness.The announcement was posted on their social media pages.The company said that
Astronomers discover possible planet born from a dead star’s ashes
A second-generation planet might be orbiting a white dwarf, in an astronomy first, according to new research.
A ‘phoenix’ planet was born from the ashes of its dead star
Finding the potential planet hints that our sun’s death could lead to the creation of new worlds.
Are aliens real? Here’s what science can and can’t prove
Some scientists believe the sheer number of stars, planets and potentially habitable environments in space makes extraterrestrial life plausible. But plausibility is not proof. Despite decades of sear...
Search for life on Mars takes major leap forward. Scientists detect longest organic molecules on planet to date | BBC Sky at Night Magazine
Scientists make discovery analysing rock pulverised for study by Curiosity rover. Largest organic compounds found on the Red Planet to date.
An 8-justice Supreme Court to decide whether cities can sue oil companies for climate change impacts
The Supreme Court will hear arguments Monday in one of the most important climate change cases to reach its docket in years, a multibillion-dollar effort to hold major oil companies like ExxonMobil liable for the damages caused by planet-warming pollution.
This Kenner 'beach' thrives on volleyball, cold beer, decades of camaraderie: 'We're still here'
If it weren’t for the glowing lights of Planet Fitness and Treasure Chest Casino at the strip mall a few feet away, you could almost forget this beach is in the middle of a parking lot in Kenner. Here’s why locals drive from New Orleans and beyond each week to hang out, play ball or drink a few cold ones.
ESA’s Juice just used Earth as a slingshot to Jupiter
ESA’s Juice spacecraft raced past Earth on September 28, using our planet’s gravity to dramatically reshape its path toward Jupiter without burning much fuel. The flyby changed its direction by 20 degrees and increased its speed by 3.5 km/s, while also giving scientists a rare chance to test its instruments on Earth and the Moon.
Ocean chemistry on ancient Earth could help scientists search for life on alien worlds
"Earth's history shows that oxygen, nutrients, and life evolved together. Understanding those connections gives us a more nuanced perspective on our own planet's future and what we might look for on other planets."
New Business: Planet Fitness gets a new look; Back Nine Golf...
Planet Fitness has debuted a new visual identity at its expanded Raymond club, while Back Nine Golf has opened a 24/7 simulator venue in Concord.
Team selected for NASA program to explore potential lunar cave
NASA has selected a Planetary Science Institute–led proposal to investigate whether a potentially large underground cave extends beyond the opening of a lunar pit. Such a cave may one day provide a safe ...
Mars’ North Polar Ice Is Much Cleaner Than Scientists Thought
Beneath the dusty surface of Mars’ north pole, scientists have uncovered surprisingly clean layers of ice that may preserve a hidden record of the planet’s dramatic climate history. Earth maintains a relatively steady posture in space thanks to the gravitational anchor of a massive moon. Mars lacks that stability. Tugged only by two tiny moons,
Mars symposium sheds light on life on the red planet
Even the greats like musician David Bowie have asked: Is there life on Mars? In a symposium held earlier this month at William & Mary, Research Professor Joel Levine said we may have answered that question 50 years ago. “The Exploration of Mars & the Search for Life: Viking to Humans” symposium was held in […]
Six mysterious structures found deep underground—scientists stunned by the discovery - Futura-Sciences
The Hidden Machinery Deep Below Earth isn’t just about tectonic plates shifting, volcanoes erupting, or the planet’s magnetic field shielding your compass. Our planet is an immense, complex machine, with gears grinding not only on the surface, but especially deep within. Numerous clues, mainly from seismic data, suggest that the...
Avon Science Education Institution Gets Massive Grant From NASA
It will upgrade the Talcott Mountain Science Center's planetarium, observatory, and data science facilities.
Radio signal detected from exoplanet for the first time
Astronomers say they have have detected a radio emission from Beta Pictoris b, an exoplanet 63 light-years from Earth, according to new research.
Scientists have detected radio signals from a planet beyond our Solar System | BBC Sky at Night Magazine
Discovery marks the first time a radio signal has been confirmed as coming from a single planet rather than an entire system.
The Politics of the Planetary
The French philosopher Guy Debord and Danish painter Asger Jorn built their book Mémoires (1959) out of a collage of purloined material. Newspaper clippings, magazine advertisements, cartoons, cutups of maps…
Scientists discover that Earth’s crust has repeatedly rolled over—and it’s still happening
An analysis of ancient sea-level changes reveals that the whole solid Earth has shifted multiple times
Ocean Floor “Pools Of Death” Could Be Key To Explaining The Origins Of Life On Earth, And Possibly Further Afield
Besides their importance for the search for life on other planets, these pools could help us find major mineral deposits.
NASA’s Webb Provides Crash Course on Planet-Shattering Collisions
In the early history of our solar system, scientists theorize that a Mars-sized object called Theia smashed into the infant Earth, vaporizing massive amounts
Good science requires much more than evidence
Empiricists believe that scientific theories are true only if they make correct empirical predictions: if we can't verify these predictions, then there is no reason to expect that they tell us anything about reality. However, Professor of Philosophy at King's College David Kyle Johnson argues that this is mistaken. In response to Bas van Fraassen, who has written on this subject for the IAI, he argues that we have many reasons for believing a theory to be true, such as it being parsimonious and having large scope — qualities which have been used throughout the history of science as criteria for judging theories. In 2024, Princeton philosopher Bas van Fraassen wrote a short article for IAI News entitled “Science Does not Describe Reality: The Limits and Benefits of Explanation.” At the time, I was working on two projects (a science book and a Great Course) that, when completed, would (among other things) defend science’s ability to describe reality. I wanted to write a response to van Fraassen, but the projects demanded too much of my attention. But now that those projects are complete, I am in a position to explain the objections to van Fraassen’s thesis. Summarizing van Fraassen’s argumentIn a nutshell, his argument is this: What scientists do is make predictions based on theories and then invite others to test to see whether those predictions are borne out. “If theory T is right, result R should happen in experimental condition C.” Many think that running an experiment that shows that R happens in condition C is proof that theory T is true (and should be believed). But, van Fraassen argues, that R happened in condition C is only a reason to think that R happens in condition C. That’s the only observable, or empirical, result we can actually see, so that is all that we are really justified in believing. (The underlying theory that made that prediction still may or may not be true.) That is why he calls those who accept his position “empiricists.”Before I explain what is wrong with this position, let me explain what it gets right. What van Fraassen Gets RightFirst, a theory correctly predicting the results of an experiment is not, strictly speaking, “proof” that the theory is correct. The basic line of reasoning is this:If the theory T is true, result R should happen. Result R did happen. Thus, theory T is true.In other words:“If T then R. R. Thus, T.”This is a deductively invalid, fallacious mode of reasoning, called “affirming the consequent.” Those premises do not guarantee that the conclusion follows. “If I am in Pennsylvania, then I am in the USA. I am in the USA. Thus, I am in Pennsylvania.” Clearly that argument doesn’t guarantee its conclusion; neither does the above argument.However, science is not a deductive method of reasoning; it is an inductive one. And inductive arguments merely try to raise the probability of their conclusion, not “prove” them for certain. Thus, the fact that an experimental result doesn’t prove a theory is true is irrelevant; it’s not supposed to. That is not what scientific reasoning is about.___If the hypothesis that something exists clearly provides the best explanation for what we can observe, then the belief that it exists is what is rational.___Second, it’s also true that a single experimental result doesn’t provide enough justification to believe that a theory is true. Scientists do not come to a consensus about whether a theory is true by looking at a single experiment; they look at all the evidence to determine where the preponderance of evidence points. The mere fact that I am in the USA raises the probability that I am in Pennsylvania, but not nearly enough to conclude that I am in Pennsylvania. However, if I am also regularly encountering people wearing Eagles and Phillies hats and seeing advertisements for Founding Father tours, I probably am. In the same way, a theory successfully predicting the outcome of one experiment is not enough to conclude that it is true; but if a theory makes a wide variety of predictions that are all vindicated by multiple experiments, performed by many different groups and people, all actively trying to prove the theory false (which is what good scientific experiments are designed to do)—that is a good reason to conclude that the theory is true. In other words, if you repeatedly try to prove something false but can’t, that is a very good indication that it isn’t. The problem of underdeterminationIn reply, those whom van Fraassen calls “empiricists” often point to the “problem of underdetermination.” For any given theory that makes successful predictions about what happens in experimental conditions, there are countless other possible theories that make exactly the same predictions—and since they do, the experimental evidence in question is just as much reason to accept any of those theories as it is to accept our original one. Thus, the argument goes, we have no way of knowing whether our original theory is true, or one of the other “predictively equivalent” theories is true. SUGGESTED VIEWING How Occam's Razor changed the world With Johnjoe McFadden As an example of underdetermination, philosophers often offer this example. The evidence of fossils seems to provide reason to conclude that the universe is quite old; ancient fossils are what the “ancient universe” hypothesis predicts. But it’s also possible that God created an ancient-looking universe 200 years ago, complete with a “fake” fossil record for us to find, to make it look old. The existence of fossils is what that theory predicts too. So, the argument goes, the fossil record can’t be used as evidence that the universe is ancient; the fossil record supports the “200-year-old ancient-looking universe” theory just as much. The problem of underdetermination points out that, for any theory with supporting evidence, we could invent another completely different theory that predicts exactly the same evidence, and thus undermine that evidence’s ability to support the original theory.But this “argument from underdetermination” betrays a fundamental misunderstanding of what scientific reasoning is and how it works. To explain, let me use another rather strange (but very real and commonly discussed) philosophical thought experiment called “The Grue Problem.” The “Grue” ProblemSuppose I want to know what color emeralds are, so I observe a few, see that they all appear green, and form the theory that “all emeralds are green.” I thus predict that the next 100 emeralds I find will also appear to be green. And let’s say that happens, and so I thus conclude that my theory that all emeralds are green is true. Now, one might rightly point out that I don’t know for sure that all emeralds are green—I have not seen them all. Maybe some I haven’t found yet are blue. Fair enough. After all, we used to think that all swans were white, until we found some black ones. But let’s say that I go on a quest and collect every emerald in the universe—and, for the sake of the argument, let’s say I can do this, and can even know that I have every one of them. So, I collect them all, look at them all, and verify that they all appear green. Can’t I now rightly conclude that all emeralds are green?Inspired by the problem of underdetermination, a friend might argue that I cannot.Sure, they all appear green now—but there could be another kind of color called “grue.” Something is grue if it is green up to a certain point in time, but then spontaneously turns blue. And there could be an infinite number of “shades” of grue. Something that is one shade of grue will turn blue at noon today, but something that is another shade of grue will turn blue at noon tomorrow, etc. So yes, the emeralds appear green now; and since they haven’t turned blue yet, they are not some “past” shade of grue. But they might be some “future” shade of grue (e.g., they may turn blue at noon tomorrow). And since all future shades of grue are consistent with “being green up to this point in time,” the evidence you have is completely consistent with the notion that all emeralds are some future shade of grue, rather than green. Indeed, that they would appear green until now is what the “some future shade of grue” hypothesis predicts. So, we have just as much reason to conclude that all emeralds are some shade of grue as we do to conclude that they are green.You’re probably thinking “It’s not equally possible that the emeralds are grue; they are obviously green.” You are right! But explaining why your instinctive reaction to my friend’s argument is correct will help inform why van Fraassen’s “empiricist” is wrong and science actually does describe reality.The main mistake my friend makes is in thinking that the “empirical evidence” (of all the emeralds appearing green) is (or even should be) all I am using to draw the conclusion that all emeralds are green. It is not. I am also considering known facts about how colors typically work; things don’t usually change color, and when they do, they don’t do so suddenly, without cause, and all at once. So, even though the simple evidence of the emeralds all appearing green up to this point is consistent with them being some future shade of grue—that is even what the grue hypothesis “predicts”—it is still exceedingly unlikely that they are. The hypothesis that they are green is much more likely. Understanding science refutes the problem of underdetermination The misunderstanding about science that the “empiricist” pointing to “the problem of underdetermination” makes is similar to the one that my friend made. Science is not just about considering experimental evidence; in fact, it’s not even just about considering empirical evidence. As Ernan McMullin and many other philosophers of science have pointed out, the inference that makes science is “inference to the best explanation” (sometimes called “abduction” or “retroduction” by McMullin). While, depending on the circumstances, scientists use many different kinds of reasoning, science as a whole is, simply put, the process of considering multiple competing explanations and comparing them to certain criteria—explanatory criteria (the kinds of things explanations must be and do, by definition, to be a good explanation)—to see which explanation is the best.And these criteria do not deal only with empirical results. Yes, successful predictions raise the probability of a hypothesis, but it’s also the case that the more new assumptions a theory makes, the less likely it is to be true; every new assumption presents an opportunity for the theory to be false. (The fewer assumptions a theory makes, the simpler or “more parsimonious” it is said to be.) Likewise, the more existing evidence a theory contradicts, the less likely it is, because in order for a theory to be true, every piece of evidence it contradicts has to be somehow faulty. (The fewer established theories a new theory contradicts, the more “conservative” it is said to be.) And, obviously, the more something explains, the better explanation it is. (This is called having “scope.”) If a theory raises unanswerable questions, it’s not expanding our understanding, and thus is not wide-scoping. Scientists consider all these things when deciding which theory to accept, because the theory that adheres best to these explanatory criteria is most likely to be true.___the mere fact that a theory’s predictive success is why it “sticks around” or “becomes accepted” in the scientific community is not a reason to be skeptical about its truth.___The reason the grue hypothesis is no good is because it invents an entirely new kind of color—not just a new shade, but an entirely different category of color (a different way colors work)—and thus is not parsimonious. It raises unanswerable questions about how and why emeralds would just spontaneously change from green to blue (and thus does not have wide scope). And it contradicts what is already well established about how color works (and thus is unconservative).The theories that the problem of underdetermination points to do the same thing. Yes, the theory that God created an “ancient-looking universe” (complete with an ancient-looking fossil record) two hundred years ago is also consistent with the empirical evidence (of a fossil record) that presently exists; but that theory is monumentally unparsimonious (it requires many extra assumptions about infinite entities) and not wide-scoping (it raises unanswerable questions about why God would do such a thing). So, I can rationally conclude that it is false.Indeed, the history of science includes many examples of theories that were rejected because they lacked parsimony and/or scope, even before their falsity (and the truth of their competing theory) was confirmed by observation. As I point out in my book, geocentrism was rejected by the scientific community because it lacked parsimony, almost 200 years before the observation of parallax confirmed that the Earth moves around the sun. And the continuum theory of matter was completely rejected by 1860, because it couldn’t explain chemical reactions or organize matter into a periodic table, even though the experiments that eventually confirmed atomic theory weren’t even proposed until the 1870s. Solving the best of a bad lot problemIn response, the “empiricists” are likely to object, this time pointing to the “best of a bad lot” problem. “We have no reason to conclude that an explanation that has been shown to be better than others is true because we have no guarantee that the true theory was among those that we were considering.” If you have a “lot” (a collection) of poor explanations, even the best one is not true.The responses to this problem, however, are numerous. Peter Lipton argues that the set of hypotheses that scientists consider are not just randomly selected and thus unlikely to contain a theory that is true; they use existing knowledge to home in on what is most likely to be true. A doctor trying to explain abdominal pain is not going to bother wondering whether demons are causing it; they are going to stick with things like appendicitis and kidney stones, because they are most likely. Further, despite its name, inference to the best explanation is not just the process of comparing hypotheses and accepting the best one; we also want one that is a good explanation in its own right. If it’s not, we are going to keep looking until we find an explanation that is. And while that process does not guarantee that we will come across the exact truth, it’s very likely that the theory that emerges as the best will be at least approximately true, and thus we will be justified in believing it. And lastly, as I point out in my book, although many theories not based in scientific evidence (like geocentrism and continuum theory) have been completely overturned, science almost always progresses by the refinement of scientifically established theories—not their replacement. (Although our sun is not the center of the universe, heliocentrism was our first step in understanding the Earth’s true place in the universe.) So even if a theory we accept today may not be completely right, accepting it is a step on the journey toward the complete truth. The example of atomic theoryNow, it’s worth pointing out that most empiricists are not skeptical of all scientific theories; they are only skeptical of the ones that hypothesize the existence of “unobservables.” It’s not like they think that round Earth, heliocentrism, and germ theory are just useful (but untrue) “instruments” for making predictions about how to most efficiently navigate the seas, predict planetary motion, and treat diseases. They admit that the Earth actually is round, that the planets revolve around the sun, and that germs exist and cause disease. These facts and entities can be observed; the theories that suggest they exist are true. It’s only when theories start hypothesizing the existence of unobservables—like electrons, or quantum fields—that can’t be observed directly, that we should start doubting the theories’ truth. And to be fair to van Fraassen, in this published work, he doesn’t really say that we should doubt the truth of such theories. Only that scientific reasoning does not rationally force us to accept them as true. Skepticism, or agnosticism, he argues, is warranted. SUGGESTED READING Science is based in metaphor By Andrew Reynolds But the history of atomic theory throws a monkey wrench into that argument. Atoms used to be unobservable; again, scientists first accepted the theory that they exist because it had such grandiose explanatory power. But then atoms were seen with electron microscopes. They thus moved into the category of the observable. But this didn’t substantially change anything about what scientists were justified in believing; it certainly didn’t change any “atomic skeptics’” minds. It just confirmed what everyone already knew! If the hypothesis that something exists clearly provides the best explanation for what we can observe, then the belief that it exists is what is rational. The fact that the thing itself is not technically observable does not make doubting its existence rational.What’s more, the atoms were seen with an electron microscope. But electrons are themselves unobservable. How can an electron microscope reveal an atom if electrons are not real? This leads us to what is famously known as Hilary Putnam’s “miracle argument.” It’s (not) a miraclePhilosopher Hilary Putnam’s miracle argument is somewhat famous. Basically, he argued that a scientific theory being able to repeatedly make successful predictions—even about unobservables—without being at least approximately true would require a “miracle.” In other words, it would be such an improbable occurrence that it could not rationally be believed—the better explanation for why scientific theories about unobservables make the right predictions is because the unobservable entities and structures they hypothesize exist.Van Fraassen has addressed this argument. Indeed, in his original article, where he references Alison Gopnik’s point about orgasms not being “necessary for procreation” even though the desire for orgasm “drives the creation of progeny,” he is pointing to his own argument about how organisms are not naturally selected by evolution to get true beliefs; to the extent that belief-forming processes are selected for, the ones that are selected are the ones that are useful for survival—not the ones that produce true beliefs. In the same way, van Fraassen argues, scientific theories are accepted, not because they are true, but because they aren’t falsified; they make successful predictions; that’s what makes them “stick around.” So, the fact that they make successful predictions (and thus became accepted) is not a reason to think they are true.This argument is similar to C. S. Lewis’s “argument from reason,” which he used to argue against evolution: “The truth of evolution undercuts our ability to know that it is true.” Lewis’ argument famously failed; Elizabeth Anscombe, by Lewis’s own admission, demolished Lewis in a debate on the topic, and I have explained elsewhere why modified versions of the argument fail as well. In short, it’s because it fails to recognize that a belief-forming process can make an organism more likely to survive because it reliably produces true beliefs. It is therefore not the case that beliefs generated by naturally selected belief-forming processes are automatically false or unjustified.In the same way, the reason a theory “sticks around” could be because it’s not falsified, because it “makes correct predictions.” But the reason it makes correct predictions is most likely because it is true. (In pointing this out, I am echoing the arguments of Musgrave, Lipton, Psillos, and Kitcher, who refuted van Fraassen’s argument and analogy long before his 2024 article.) It would be a huge coincidence that it could do so without being true. And that is the point of Putnam’s miracle argument. Thus, contrary to van Fraassen’s suggestion, the mere fact that a theory’s predictive success is why it “sticks around” or “becomes accepted” in the scientific community is not a reason to be skeptical about its truth. ConclusionLet me close by saying something about the fact that empiricists don’t doubt the truth of all scientific theories, just the ones that hypothesize unobservables. In today’s society, this theory is dangerous to espouse publicly. The nuance between being skeptical about all of science, and just the highly technical theories about unobservables, is guaranteed to be lost to the average reader. And there is so much unjustified skepticism and doubt about the findings of science and experts that a headline like “Science Does Not Describe Reality” could easily fuel the anti-science movement, worsen climate change denial and cause the next pandemic.This is why I believe it was important to still respond to van Fraassen’s article, a full two years after he wrote it. Not only, as I have argued, does it represent a philosophically inaccurate view of how scientific reasoning works and what scientific reasoning can do, but it is a dangerous view to boot. It should thus be rejected.
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