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Conservative anti-tax group seeks FCC approval for AI robocalls ahead of US midterms
A Democratic member of the Federal Communications Commission urged the agency on Wednesday not to approve a petition to allow political AI-generated robocalls from conservative political group Club for Growth.
FCC considers allowing more political robocalls before midterms, including those created with AI
WASHINGTON (AP) — The Federal Communications Commission is considering a request by a conservative group to loosen rules on political robocalls, including those with artificial intelligence-generated ...
Broome County Mental Health talks BC SAFE and Suicide Prevention
Heidi Mikeska and Brittany Riso from the Broome County Mental Health Department came on to talk about the results of Chalk the Walk and Suicide Prevention Month.
NBC MT Today: Rising fuel costs impact business, absentee ballot ruling, snow chances
Sporting director move a positive one
Micky Moore's arrival as sporting director at Port Vale is good news says boss Jon Brady and adds he knows results have to improve.
Kansas City Royals news: All (stadium) business in KC
Despite the Kansas City Royals leaving Truman Sports complex, could the area find new life?
'Bring the magic' - Scotland's Ross eyes World Cup dream
Scotland assistant coach Leanne Ross never played at a World Cup but thinks the current squad has what it takes to get through the play-offs for Brazil 2027.
Show ambition or stay at home
QPR boss Julien Stephan says his players must show ambition at West Ham on Friday night - or otherwise "stay at home".
Area schools secure top spots in latest OSHAA computer ratings
The latest OSHAA computer ratings show Bellbrook, Graham Local, and Marion Local schools holding top regional rankings.
What questions face Pocognoli after Scotland defeat?
Sebastien Pocognoli has much to ponder before next month's Nations League group-stage finale after a bruising home defeat by Slovenia.
Family, football and Dalglish - what drives NI boss McArdle?
BBC Sport NI's Andy Gray sits down with Northern Ireland manager Michael McArdle to discuss his long career ahead of his biggest managerial test in the World Cup play-offs.
HSBC plans job cuts across UK wealth business in AI push, FT reports
HSBC is planning sweeping job cuts across its UK wealth management business, including a sharp reduction in financial advisers and specialist staff, as part of a broader push to use artificial intelligence, the Financial Times reported on Wednesday.
Red Sox Reveal Adley Rutschman Contract Plan Amid Questions
The Red Sox have to do what's right with Adley Rutschman.
Raiders-Chiefs showdown scores record-breaking viewership
Sunday’s Week 4 matchup between the Las Vegas Raiders and Kansas City Chiefs certainly delivered. CBS Sports reported that the 30-27 thriller between the two teams had 28.4 million viewers,...
Elizabeth Berkley says “DWTS” created ‘drama’ where it ‘didn’t exist’ when she was on show
The “Saved by the Bell” alum competed on the 17th season and was eliminated despite earning a perfect score.
Should the Cowboys Be Interested in a Khalil Mack Trade?
Khalil Mack could become available if the Chargers keep losing. Should the Cowboys explore a trade for the 35-year-old pass rusher?
Older voters prioritize Social Security, Medicare and afford...
A new AARP poll finds New Hampshire voters over 50 are highly motivated, focused on affordability and Social Security, and key to the outcome of the state’s top...
Who should be Michigan’s starting quarterback vs. Penn State?
Underwood or Carr? Who should be Michigan’s QB1 vs. Penn State?
Charlie’s Beat: A Passion for Great Produce
The backbone of any Farmer’s Market are the purveyors of the raw products. The produce, fruit and vegetables, the meat, the honey, the herbs, and sometimes, because life requires beauty,
'Real buzz' around Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland midfielder Shea Charles says "he could not be happier" following the side's unbeaten Nations League window.
Downtown Tallahassee business expects slower day after nearby underground electrical fire
Metro Deli is located just two blocks from where Tallahassee city officials said the fire-related incident unfolded and left damage on Monroe Street Tuesday morning.
LIVE: Gov. DeSantis holds news conference on health care in West Palm Beach
Florida Gov. Ron DeSantis is scheduled to hold a news conference at 11:45 a.m. Tuesday in West Palm Beach.
Browns bring in former WR for a workout on Tuesday
James Proche is back in Cleveland for a workout ahead of Week 5.
NBA star Wembanyama trains with French rugby club
NBA superstar Victor Wembanyama says he was inspired by the unity and camaraderie of rugby after spending time with French second tier side Provence.
Rebels in the Pros: NFL Week 4
Week 4 in the NFL has officially come and gone. Have I mentioned how remarkably sad it is that Jaxson Dart is hurt? I was so excited about the Giants this year, finally. Anyways, there are still plenty of Rebs in the league putting in work for us to recognize. DK Metcalf did his best […]
Arsenal star in contention for Golden Boy 2026 award
Myles Lewis-Skelly is among the leading Premier League youngsters nominated for the 2026 Golden Boy award, after reclaiming his place in the Arsenal and England teams.During the second half of last se...
Saints under 'extra pressure' before derby
Nerves are buzzing around Southampton as they await to hear the outcome of boss Tonda Eckert's Spygate hearing amid a looming South Coast derby.
Freiburg announce contract extension for Ginter
SC Freiburg have announced that Matthias Ginter has signed a new contract with the club.The Breisgau outfit confirmed on Tuesday that the 32-year-old centre-back will continue his spell in Freiburg, w...
Zinedine Zidane hails ‘exceptional’ Michael Olise
France head coach Zinedine Zidane has described Bayern Munich’s Michael Olise as “exceptional” after his team’s 4-1 win over Belgium on Monday. Les Bleus came from behind to score four late go...
Donley keen to add goals after encouraging NI run
After a four-game window with plenty of positives for Northern Ireland, there was perhaps just one lingering concern - their ability to score goals consistently.
Reggie McFadden death: Comedian and actor dies at 57
'In Living Color' actor and comedian Reggie McFadden has died at the age of 57. His family received word from the State Department of his death in Tanzania.
Price misses penalty as Northern Ireland held by Georgia
Northern Ireland remain the only team to not concede in the 2026-27 Uefa Nations League after a 0-0 draw against Georgia in Group B2 at Windsor Park.
Tony Gilroy on leaving the politics of ‘Andor’ behind for his 9-composer music drama ‘Behemoth!’
Tony Gilroy’s “Behemoth!”.
Packers place former Georgia Bulldogs DL on injured reserve
The Green Bay Packers have suffered several key injuries on defense. Green Bay will be without former Georgia DL Warren Brinson for extended time
Lakers at Kings: What to Watch
Two available starting spots, Walker Kessler’s debut and the Lakers’ bench production headline Monday’s preseason opener in Sacramento.
Burton must respond to 'gift-wrapped' loss
Burton boss Gary Bowyer says this week will help him see "what the squad is made of" after defensive errors "gift-wrapped" Huddersfield victory.
Mary McNamara: As David Ellison names his new empire Skydance, the message is clear: He owns Hollywood
LOS ANGELES — What a surprise. David Ellison has decided to name the Frankenstudio media company created by the merger of Paramount Skydance and Warner Bros. Discovery simply Skydance. And
Why .670 OPS outfielder 'won't be back' with Mariners
This seems like an unlikely reunion for the Mariners.
Dawg Sports on the Radio
Your Georgia Bulldogs defeated the Vanderbilt Commodores 38-14 on Saturday, and we intend to not just write about it, but also talk about it. That’s why I’ll be listening to MaconDawg’s chinchilla ranching consultant on WFOY in St. Augustine(102.1 FM/1240 AM) this evening around 6:45 pm Eastern to talk Georgia Bulldog football on SportsNow with host […]
Carlisle boss Elliot proud of squad after hard week
After a five-game winless streak, consecutive away wins have eased some of the pressure on Carlisle head coach Rob Elliot.
'The Outsiders' review: A dynamic staging at the Hollywood Pantages
'The Outsiders,' winner of the 2024 Tony for best musical and based on the classic S.E. Hinton novel, has its L.A. premiere at the Hollywood Pantages Theatre.
Inter Join Barcelona, EPL Giants for Stuttgart Talent
Inter got only slightly younger defensively in the summer and have earmarked Finn Jeltsch to bring in fresh legs at the position in the future. The Nerazzurri parted ways with Stefano Acerbi, Stefan D...
Bournemouth's Scott withdraws from England squad
Bournemouth midfielder Alex Scott withdraws from the England squad to face the Czech Republic on Tuesday with an injury.
Experienced signings will help captain James
Cesar Azpilicueta backs Chelsea's decision to sign experienced players this summer and believes it will help captain Reece James grow as a leader.
Confirmed: Roma reopen talks with Endrick’s entourage
Roma will continue to strengthen in January. Gian Piero Gasperini, even in the last transfer window, was left without a striker capable of sprinting and raising the team’s level. A promised addition...
5 winners, 5 losers from Lions’ loss to the Panthers
The Detroit Lions fell flat against the Carolina Panthers and are now facing some serious questions about their team.
Nobel week kicks off with medicine prize
Nobel Prize week gets under way on Monday with the announcement of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine at 11:30 am (0930 GMT) in Stockholm. This week will also see the announcement of the Nobel ...
Winners and Losers from Seahawks’ needlessly close win vs. Chargers
The Seahawks won as expected against the Chargers, but it was far from pretty.
Bronny James Speaks on Reuniting With Ziaire Williams on Lakers
James says it is great to have his old high school teammate back in the building, and he thinks Los Angeles is the right stage for him.
NI team will 'have bumps along the road'
Follow live text commentary, score updates and match stats from Northern Ireland vs Georgia in the UEFA Nations League
Coleraine come from behind to beat Bangor
League leaders Coleraine come from behind to beat Bangor 3-2 at Clandeboye Park.
Week 4 Early Game Open Thread
Welcome to Week 4! We experimented with some SB Nation feed posts for gameday discussion and while that is interesting on prime time games, I think for the early game thread before the Denver Broncos play should just be a regular post. So we’re bringing that back! The games start early with one in London […]
Liverpool keeping tabs on Barcelona midfielder Bernal
Liverpool and Atletico Madrid are keeping tabs on the situation of Barcelona midfielder Marc Bernal.The teenager is set to assess his future should his minutes not increase under Hansi Flick, having b...
Bowie seizing Scotland shot after World Cup disappointment
BBC Scotland speaks to Kieron Bowie after he scored his first goal for his country against North Macedonia.
Lightning beat the Capitals 3-1 in home opener
(AP) — Andrei Vasilevskiy made 19 saves, Charle-Edouard D'Astous and Conor Geekie scored in the first period and the Tampa Bay Lightning won their home opener with a 3-1 victory over the Washington Capitals on Saturday night.Brandon Hagel had two assists for the Lightning, and Jake Guentzel scored into an empty net and had an assist.
Patriots fan-favorite fined twice for same Week 3 play
Patriots veteran wide receiver Mack Hollins was hit with two fines from the same play in last week's game against the Jaguars.
Local college football highlights and scores (10-3-26)
Here’s a look at our local college football highlights and scores from October 3rd, 2026: Briar Cliff 38, Waldorf 7 Morningside 56, Dakota Wesleyan 20 Dordt 42, Midland 17 Northwestern 38, Concordia 24 Simpson 51, Buena Vista 20 Wayne State 17, Winona State 14
4 Things Auburn Must Do to Upset Tennessee in Knoxville
Auburn football can upset Tennessee at Neyland Stadium if four things go right. Alex Golesh's Tigers must start faster, unleash Byrum Brown's legs, improve tackling and finally get off the field on fourth down in their toughest road test of the 2026 season.
Padres’ hitters must carry momentum into Milwaukee
After early-season struggles, the Friars’ bats came alive in the second half and sustained the momentum into October.
Syracuse Football Fans Upset With Program's Social Media Post
Orange fans did not appreciate a Friday social media post by the team that seemed to target fans on Friday.
FTI, Oracle and Paramount: This Week's Top Five Stories
This week's top stories include, FTI Consulting on the AI slowdown, Oracle's US$664bn backlog and further news from Paramount's Warner Bros. merger
Juan Luis Arsuaga, paleontologist: ‘Corruption is very Paleolithic, very chimpanzee-like’
The co-director of the Atapuerca archaeological site shares with EL PAÍS the key points of his new book, ‘The Answer,’ a luminous text that exudes admiration for our own species and love for nature
Friday Night Blitz Week 7 scores, highlights
Scores are rolling in! Check how your local teams are faring so far!
4 Cass County businesses fail alcohol compliance check
A total of 25 businesses were checked for compliance and 21 passed, an 84% compliance rate.
How Boston College football matches up with SMU
Collecting a combined eight takeaways through four games this season, Boston College football (2-2) has gotten great short-field opportunities from these turnovers, and will aim to continue to make the opposing offense pay as it travels to take on 21st-ranked SMU (3-1), one of the most efficient offensive teams in the country. Although they have […]
A Mother's Fear: How local family navigated son's mental health crisis
Brianne McFarland said her family's life was just like any other until her middle-school-aged son, Jake, began struggling with his mental health.
Tankards, Clough & 'creaky joints'
More than three decades since its last staging, Scottish football's cult indoor event makes a comeback with the "creaky joints" of former players taking to an ice rink.
Camden Chat Pre-Season Contest Results
282 entries, 30 questions, five winners.
NFL Predictions: Buccaneers vs. Packers Week 4 Picks and Scores
The Tampa Bay Buccaneers are still searching for their first win of the season as they prepare to host the Green Bay Packers Sunday afternoon at Raymond James Stadium. Tampa Bay enters Week 4 at 0-3 following last week’s 23-16 loss to the Minnesota Vikings. The Buccaneers will also be without starting quarterback Baker Mayfield, […]
Swindon's Holloway labels himself dead man walking
Swindon manager Ian Holloway calls himself a "dead man walking" if the team's form does not turn around.
Analytics vs. players: Red Sox tensions boil over
The Red Sox's wild card sweep exposed a deeper rift between players and management over analytics-driven in-game decisions, most notably the early removal of Sonny Gray in Game 2.
Man City verdict has 'implications on game's integrity'
The independent commission's verdict against Manchester City has "significant implications for the integrity of the game", according to the Football Association.
The Unpromotables: Germany's league champions who can't go up
German football is grappling with a sum that doesn't add up - four promotion spots for five league champions.
Charlotte 49ers game vs. Memphis moved to Saturday morning
Charlotte (0-4) is still looking for its first win since last September.
Jaylen Wright practices in full Thursday
Dolphins RB Jaylen Wright seems on track to play after a full practice
How the Legend of Sleepy Hollow is driving business growth in the Hudson Valley
NHL Says Players In ‘Hot For Hockey’ Campaign Approved Content
The romance novel–inspired marketing effort has received mixed reviews.
Diamondbacks reveal managerial fate of Torey Lovullo
The Diamondbacks fell short of the postseason.
Diamondbacks Extend Torey Lovullo
The Diamondbacks have extended their skipper for another two seasons.
Never played in Prem - and now face World Cup hosts
Jack Combes and Alex Post tell BBC Sport about a "dream come true" as they look ahead to the 2027 Rugby World Cup opener against hosts Australia.
Former Disney CEO Bob Chapek's advice to Josh D'Amaro: avoid politics
Bob Chapek backs current top Disney executive Josh D'Amaro, saying his promotion was "appropriate," and offered some advice.
Alabama Awards Nearly $55 Million in Additional Rural Health Grants
Alabama Awards Nearly $55 Million in Additional Rural Health GrantsMONTGOMERY, Ala. — Alabama Gov. Kay Ivey announced Thursday that 34 grants totaling nearly $5
Blocktober Party to kick off Halloween in Denton rescheduled
The Blocktober Party and Pumpkin Drop, the annual kick-off event for 31 Days of Denton Halloween, has been rescheduled for Oct. 8 due to inclement weather.
Captain Lee Rosbach to Undergo ‘Big Surgery’ After Health Forced Below Deck Exit
Captain Lee Rosbach planned to bring fans along for a major medical procedure that he hoped would ease the physical problems that had affected him for years. The former Below Deck captain said he is s...
Guide to New Orleans theater shows in October 2026
From uplifting musicals like "Come From Away" to compelling dramas like "Something Cloudy, Something Clear," the New Orleans and northshore stages are set for a diverse and captivating fall season!
Losing Baleba and Champions League ambition
Colin asked: Has the departure of Baleba helped team spirit and what can the club do to start retaining our stars so that we can take the next step to trophy success? Johnny: The midfield has coped really well without Baleba. If he progresses at Manchester United it may be seen as a loss, but in terms of team spirit, I don't think he had a detrimental effect.
TGL renews media-rights partnership with ESPN
The Tiger Woods/Rory McIlroy-backed golf simulator league will be returning to ESPN networks for Season 3 in 2027
Lions Miss Out on Joey Porter Jr.
Joey Porter Jr. is officially off the market, but Lions fans shouldn’t panic. Brad Holmes passed on the blockbuster move, and Detroit may have a much bigger opportunity waiting before the trade deadline.
Ed Sheeran Told U2 He Didn’t Want to ‘Get Into Politics’ on Song About Ukraine’s War With Russia, Says Bono
U2 and Ed Sheeran collaborated earlier this year on the song “Yours Eternally” off the band’s “Days of Ash” EP, which dropped in February. Bono told Rolling Stone UK in a new interview that Sheeran ex...
Crewe run frustrating but squad is confident
Crewe Alexandra midfielder Joe White says the run of six draws in a row is frustrating but has given them confidence they are hard to beat.
Tiffani Thiessen's teen daughter has a blunt take on her '90s TV hits
Tiffani Thiessen on "Coven Academy," looking back on her '90s sex-symbol image and what she's teaching her kids by aging naturally.
Chicago Cubs news
Nico Hoerner broke up a no-hit bid, then singled to load the bases in the ninth, but it was too late.
Good science requires much more than evidence
Empiricists believe that scientific theories are true only if they make correct empirical predictions: if we can't verify these predictions, then there is no reason to expect that they tell us anything about reality. However, Professor of Philosophy at King's College David Kyle Johnson argues that this is mistaken. In response to Bas van Fraassen, who has written on this subject for the IAI, he argues that we have many reasons for believing a theory to be true, such as it being parsimonious and having large scope — qualities which have been used throughout the history of science as criteria for judging theories. In 2024, Princeton philosopher Bas van Fraassen wrote a short article for IAI News entitled “Science Does not Describe Reality: The Limits and Benefits of Explanation.” At the time, I was working on two projects (a science book and a Great Course) that, when completed, would (among other things) defend science’s ability to describe reality. I wanted to write a response to van Fraassen, but the projects demanded too much of my attention. But now that those projects are complete, I am in a position to explain the objections to van Fraassen’s thesis. Summarizing van Fraassen’s argumentIn a nutshell, his argument is this: What scientists do is make predictions based on theories and then invite others to test to see whether those predictions are borne out. “If theory T is right, result R should happen in experimental condition C.” Many think that running an experiment that shows that R happens in condition C is proof that theory T is true (and should be believed). But, van Fraassen argues, that R happened in condition C is only a reason to think that R happens in condition C. That’s the only observable, or empirical, result we can actually see, so that is all that we are really justified in believing. (The underlying theory that made that prediction still may or may not be true.) That is why he calls those who accept his position “empiricists.”Before I explain what is wrong with this position, let me explain what it gets right. What van Fraassen Gets RightFirst, a theory correctly predicting the results of an experiment is not, strictly speaking, “proof” that the theory is correct. The basic line of reasoning is this:If the theory T is true, result R should happen. Result R did happen. Thus, theory T is true.In other words:“If T then R. R. Thus, T.”This is a deductively invalid, fallacious mode of reasoning, called “affirming the consequent.” Those premises do not guarantee that the conclusion follows. “If I am in Pennsylvania, then I am in the USA. I am in the USA. Thus, I am in Pennsylvania.” Clearly that argument doesn’t guarantee its conclusion; neither does the above argument.However, science is not a deductive method of reasoning; it is an inductive one. And inductive arguments merely try to raise the probability of their conclusion, not “prove” them for certain. Thus, the fact that an experimental result doesn’t prove a theory is true is irrelevant; it’s not supposed to. That is not what scientific reasoning is about.___If the hypothesis that something exists clearly provides the best explanation for what we can observe, then the belief that it exists is what is rational.___Second, it’s also true that a single experimental result doesn’t provide enough justification to believe that a theory is true. Scientists do not come to a consensus about whether a theory is true by looking at a single experiment; they look at all the evidence to determine where the preponderance of evidence points. The mere fact that I am in the USA raises the probability that I am in Pennsylvania, but not nearly enough to conclude that I am in Pennsylvania. However, if I am also regularly encountering people wearing Eagles and Phillies hats and seeing advertisements for Founding Father tours, I probably am. In the same way, a theory successfully predicting the outcome of one experiment is not enough to conclude that it is true; but if a theory makes a wide variety of predictions that are all vindicated by multiple experiments, performed by many different groups and people, all actively trying to prove the theory false (which is what good scientific experiments are designed to do)—that is a good reason to conclude that the theory is true. In other words, if you repeatedly try to prove something false but can’t, that is a very good indication that it isn’t. The problem of underdeterminationIn reply, those whom van Fraassen calls “empiricists” often point to the “problem of underdetermination.” For any given theory that makes successful predictions about what happens in experimental conditions, there are countless other possible theories that make exactly the same predictions—and since they do, the experimental evidence in question is just as much reason to accept any of those theories as it is to accept our original one. Thus, the argument goes, we have no way of knowing whether our original theory is true, or one of the other “predictively equivalent” theories is true. SUGGESTED VIEWING How Occam's Razor changed the world With Johnjoe McFadden As an example of underdetermination, philosophers often offer this example. The evidence of fossils seems to provide reason to conclude that the universe is quite old; ancient fossils are what the “ancient universe” hypothesis predicts. But it’s also possible that God created an ancient-looking universe 200 years ago, complete with a “fake” fossil record for us to find, to make it look old. The existence of fossils is what that theory predicts too. So, the argument goes, the fossil record can’t be used as evidence that the universe is ancient; the fossil record supports the “200-year-old ancient-looking universe” theory just as much. The problem of underdetermination points out that, for any theory with supporting evidence, we could invent another completely different theory that predicts exactly the same evidence, and thus undermine that evidence’s ability to support the original theory.But this “argument from underdetermination” betrays a fundamental misunderstanding of what scientific reasoning is and how it works. To explain, let me use another rather strange (but very real and commonly discussed) philosophical thought experiment called “The Grue Problem.” The “Grue” ProblemSuppose I want to know what color emeralds are, so I observe a few, see that they all appear green, and form the theory that “all emeralds are green.” I thus predict that the next 100 emeralds I find will also appear to be green. And let’s say that happens, and so I thus conclude that my theory that all emeralds are green is true. Now, one might rightly point out that I don’t know for sure that all emeralds are green—I have not seen them all. Maybe some I haven’t found yet are blue. Fair enough. After all, we used to think that all swans were white, until we found some black ones. But let’s say that I go on a quest and collect every emerald in the universe—and, for the sake of the argument, let’s say I can do this, and can even know that I have every one of them. So, I collect them all, look at them all, and verify that they all appear green. Can’t I now rightly conclude that all emeralds are green?Inspired by the problem of underdetermination, a friend might argue that I cannot.Sure, they all appear green now—but there could be another kind of color called “grue.” Something is grue if it is green up to a certain point in time, but then spontaneously turns blue. And there could be an infinite number of “shades” of grue. Something that is one shade of grue will turn blue at noon today, but something that is another shade of grue will turn blue at noon tomorrow, etc. So yes, the emeralds appear green now; and since they haven’t turned blue yet, they are not some “past” shade of grue. But they might be some “future” shade of grue (e.g., they may turn blue at noon tomorrow). And since all future shades of grue are consistent with “being green up to this point in time,” the evidence you have is completely consistent with the notion that all emeralds are some future shade of grue, rather than green. Indeed, that they would appear green until now is what the “some future shade of grue” hypothesis predicts. So, we have just as much reason to conclude that all emeralds are some shade of grue as we do to conclude that they are green.You’re probably thinking “It’s not equally possible that the emeralds are grue; they are obviously green.” You are right! But explaining why your instinctive reaction to my friend’s argument is correct will help inform why van Fraassen’s “empiricist” is wrong and science actually does describe reality.The main mistake my friend makes is in thinking that the “empirical evidence” (of all the emeralds appearing green) is (or even should be) all I am using to draw the conclusion that all emeralds are green. It is not. I am also considering known facts about how colors typically work; things don’t usually change color, and when they do, they don’t do so suddenly, without cause, and all at once. So, even though the simple evidence of the emeralds all appearing green up to this point is consistent with them being some future shade of grue—that is even what the grue hypothesis “predicts”—it is still exceedingly unlikely that they are. The hypothesis that they are green is much more likely. Understanding science refutes the problem of underdetermination The misunderstanding about science that the “empiricist” pointing to “the problem of underdetermination” makes is similar to the one that my friend made. Science is not just about considering experimental evidence; in fact, it’s not even just about considering empirical evidence. As Ernan McMullin and many other philosophers of science have pointed out, the inference that makes science is “inference to the best explanation” (sometimes called “abduction” or “retroduction” by McMullin). While, depending on the circumstances, scientists use many different kinds of reasoning, science as a whole is, simply put, the process of considering multiple competing explanations and comparing them to certain criteria—explanatory criteria (the kinds of things explanations must be and do, by definition, to be a good explanation)—to see which explanation is the best.And these criteria do not deal only with empirical results. Yes, successful predictions raise the probability of a hypothesis, but it’s also the case that the more new assumptions a theory makes, the less likely it is to be true; every new assumption presents an opportunity for the theory to be false. (The fewer assumptions a theory makes, the simpler or “more parsimonious” it is said to be.) Likewise, the more existing evidence a theory contradicts, the less likely it is, because in order for a theory to be true, every piece of evidence it contradicts has to be somehow faulty. (The fewer established theories a new theory contradicts, the more “conservative” it is said to be.) And, obviously, the more something explains, the better explanation it is. (This is called having “scope.”) If a theory raises unanswerable questions, it’s not expanding our understanding, and thus is not wide-scoping. Scientists consider all these things when deciding which theory to accept, because the theory that adheres best to these explanatory criteria is most likely to be true.___the mere fact that a theory’s predictive success is why it “sticks around” or “becomes accepted” in the scientific community is not a reason to be skeptical about its truth.___The reason the grue hypothesis is no good is because it invents an entirely new kind of color—not just a new shade, but an entirely different category of color (a different way colors work)—and thus is not parsimonious. It raises unanswerable questions about how and why emeralds would just spontaneously change from green to blue (and thus does not have wide scope). And it contradicts what is already well established about how color works (and thus is unconservative).The theories that the problem of underdetermination points to do the same thing. Yes, the theory that God created an “ancient-looking universe” (complete with an ancient-looking fossil record) two hundred years ago is also consistent with the empirical evidence (of a fossil record) that presently exists; but that theory is monumentally unparsimonious (it requires many extra assumptions about infinite entities) and not wide-scoping (it raises unanswerable questions about why God would do such a thing). So, I can rationally conclude that it is false.Indeed, the history of science includes many examples of theories that were rejected because they lacked parsimony and/or scope, even before their falsity (and the truth of their competing theory) was confirmed by observation. As I point out in my book, geocentrism was rejected by the scientific community because it lacked parsimony, almost 200 years before the observation of parallax confirmed that the Earth moves around the sun. And the continuum theory of matter was completely rejected by 1860, because it couldn’t explain chemical reactions or organize matter into a periodic table, even though the experiments that eventually confirmed atomic theory weren’t even proposed until the 1870s. Solving the best of a bad lot problemIn response, the “empiricists” are likely to object, this time pointing to the “best of a bad lot” problem. “We have no reason to conclude that an explanation that has been shown to be better than others is true because we have no guarantee that the true theory was among those that we were considering.” If you have a “lot” (a collection) of poor explanations, even the best one is not true.The responses to this problem, however, are numerous. Peter Lipton argues that the set of hypotheses that scientists consider are not just randomly selected and thus unlikely to contain a theory that is true; they use existing knowledge to home in on what is most likely to be true. A doctor trying to explain abdominal pain is not going to bother wondering whether demons are causing it; they are going to stick with things like appendicitis and kidney stones, because they are most likely. Further, despite its name, inference to the best explanation is not just the process of comparing hypotheses and accepting the best one; we also want one that is a good explanation in its own right. If it’s not, we are going to keep looking until we find an explanation that is. And while that process does not guarantee that we will come across the exact truth, it’s very likely that the theory that emerges as the best will be at least approximately true, and thus we will be justified in believing it. And lastly, as I point out in my book, although many theories not based in scientific evidence (like geocentrism and continuum theory) have been completely overturned, science almost always progresses by the refinement of scientifically established theories—not their replacement. (Although our sun is not the center of the universe, heliocentrism was our first step in understanding the Earth’s true place in the universe.) So even if a theory we accept today may not be completely right, accepting it is a step on the journey toward the complete truth. The example of atomic theoryNow, it’s worth pointing out that most empiricists are not skeptical of all scientific theories; they are only skeptical of the ones that hypothesize the existence of “unobservables.” It’s not like they think that round Earth, heliocentrism, and germ theory are just useful (but untrue) “instruments” for making predictions about how to most efficiently navigate the seas, predict planetary motion, and treat diseases. They admit that the Earth actually is round, that the planets revolve around the sun, and that germs exist and cause disease. These facts and entities can be observed; the theories that suggest they exist are true. It’s only when theories start hypothesizing the existence of unobservables—like electrons, or quantum fields—that can’t be observed directly, that we should start doubting the theories’ truth. And to be fair to van Fraassen, in this published work, he doesn’t really say that we should doubt the truth of such theories. Only that scientific reasoning does not rationally force us to accept them as true. Skepticism, or agnosticism, he argues, is warranted. SUGGESTED READING Science is based in metaphor By Andrew Reynolds But the history of atomic theory throws a monkey wrench into that argument. Atoms used to be unobservable; again, scientists first accepted the theory that they exist because it had such grandiose explanatory power. But then atoms were seen with electron microscopes. They thus moved into the category of the observable. But this didn’t substantially change anything about what scientists were justified in believing; it certainly didn’t change any “atomic skeptics’” minds. It just confirmed what everyone already knew! If the hypothesis that something exists clearly provides the best explanation for what we can observe, then the belief that it exists is what is rational. The fact that the thing itself is not technically observable does not make doubting its existence rational.What’s more, the atoms were seen with an electron microscope. But electrons are themselves unobservable. How can an electron microscope reveal an atom if electrons are not real? This leads us to what is famously known as Hilary Putnam’s “miracle argument.” It’s (not) a miraclePhilosopher Hilary Putnam’s miracle argument is somewhat famous. Basically, he argued that a scientific theory being able to repeatedly make successful predictions—even about unobservables—without being at least approximately true would require a “miracle.” In other words, it would be such an improbable occurrence that it could not rationally be believed—the better explanation for why scientific theories about unobservables make the right predictions is because the unobservable entities and structures they hypothesize exist.Van Fraassen has addressed this argument. Indeed, in his original article, where he references Alison Gopnik’s point about orgasms not being “necessary for procreation” even though the desire for orgasm “drives the creation of progeny,” he is pointing to his own argument about how organisms are not naturally selected by evolution to get true beliefs; to the extent that belief-forming processes are selected for, the ones that are selected are the ones that are useful for survival—not the ones that produce true beliefs. In the same way, van Fraassen argues, scientific theories are accepted, not because they are true, but because they aren’t falsified; they make successful predictions; that’s what makes them “stick around.” So, the fact that they make successful predictions (and thus became accepted) is not a reason to think they are true.This argument is similar to C. S. Lewis’s “argument from reason,” which he used to argue against evolution: “The truth of evolution undercuts our ability to know that it is true.” Lewis’ argument famously failed; Elizabeth Anscombe, by Lewis’s own admission, demolished Lewis in a debate on the topic, and I have explained elsewhere why modified versions of the argument fail as well. In short, it’s because it fails to recognize that a belief-forming process can make an organism more likely to survive because it reliably produces true beliefs. It is therefore not the case that beliefs generated by naturally selected belief-forming processes are automatically false or unjustified.In the same way, the reason a theory “sticks around” could be because it’s not falsified, because it “makes correct predictions.” But the reason it makes correct predictions is most likely because it is true. (In pointing this out, I am echoing the arguments of Musgrave, Lipton, Psillos, and Kitcher, who refuted van Fraassen’s argument and analogy long before his 2024 article.) It would be a huge coincidence that it could do so without being true. And that is the point of Putnam’s miracle argument. Thus, contrary to van Fraassen’s suggestion, the mere fact that a theory’s predictive success is why it “sticks around” or “becomes accepted” in the scientific community is not a reason to be skeptical about its truth. ConclusionLet me close by saying something about the fact that empiricists don’t doubt the truth of all scientific theories, just the ones that hypothesize unobservables. In today’s society, this theory is dangerous to espouse publicly. The nuance between being skeptical about all of science, and just the highly technical theories about unobservables, is guaranteed to be lost to the average reader. And there is so much unjustified skepticism and doubt about the findings of science and experts that a headline like “Science Does Not Describe Reality” could easily fuel the anti-science movement, worsen climate change denial and cause the next pandemic.This is why I believe it was important to still respond to van Fraassen’s article, a full two years after he wrote it. Not only, as I have argued, does it represent a philosophically inaccurate view of how scientific reasoning works and what scientific reasoning can do, but it is a dangerous view to boot. It should thus be rejected.
Brennan keen to learn from seasoned counterparts
Barnet boss Dean Brennan is keen to learn from experienced League Two managers, describing it as an "unbelievable education".