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Truth and Politics in the Age of Post-Truth
Get E-International Relations delivered to your inbox, free of charge. As you sign up, consider becoming a paid subscriber, or make a donation, to support our work. Subscribe This is an excerpt from Global Politics in a Post-Truth Era. You can download the book free of charge from E-International Relations. The term post-truth is by now so ubiquitous in describing the state of politics in the Western world and even beyond that the most pressing issue of the day appears to be about making democracy work in the era of post-truth rather than questioning the normalisation of the term itself in the first place. The critical turning point appeared to have occurred in 2016 when the term was chosen by the Oxford English Dictionary as ‘The Word of the Year.’ On its website, the Dictionary notes the transformation of post-truth from ‘being a peripheral term to being a mainstay in political commentary and connects ‘the spike in frequency’ directly with the Brexit referendum in the United Kingdom and the election of Donald J. Trump in the United States – both occurring in 2016. Paired with the noun ‘politics,’ post-truth is defined as an adjective ‘relating to or denoting circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief.’ The Oxford English Dictionary traces the first use of the term to a 1992 essay in The Nation by the playwright Steve Tesich as he reflected on the 1980s Iran-Contra scandal and the 1990–91 Gulf War: We are rapidly becoming prototypes of a people that totalitarian monsters could only drool about in their dreams. All the dictators up to now have had to work hard at suppressing the truth. We, by our actions, are saying that this is no longer necessary, that we have acquired a spiritual mechanism that can denude truth of any significance. In a very fundamental way we, as a free people, have freely decided that we want to live in some post-truth world (Tesich 1992, 13; emphasis added). He then continued, The Gulf War is over but the war at home goes on. The gulf between rich and destitute widens – between those of us who live in a modern post-industrial nation and those of us who live in the Third World countries of our inner cities. The present administration’s response to this internal crisis has shifted from benign to malignant neglect. The current levels of misery and decomposition of our cities and the economic gulags of our ghettos are acceptable. Since there is only so much hope to go around, there is a freeze on hope. The have-nots have now been reclassified as never-will-haves (Tesich 1992, 13). In the context of Tesich’s essay, truth includes both facts, as in what happens, and ‘moral absolutes,’ as in the ‘self-evident truths mentioned in our Constitution’ (Tesich 1992, 14). Together, these two notions of truth entail the obligation to both act and react. The two passages cited above show that even in the early post-Cold War years, Tesich was already deeply concerned that the American people are neither prepared to act on truth nor react to truth that is disconcerting, or what he calls ‘bad news’ (Tesich 1992, 12). Accordingly, Tesich’s insight as captured by the term post-truth is not that truth is irrelevant to what we know, but rather it is irrelevant to how we act. In contrast, ‘post-truth politics,’ as defined by Oxford as a term that pitches ‘objective facts’ against ‘emotion and personal belief’ such that the latter appears to have overtaken the former in shaping ‘public opinion’ and thereby, democratic politics. When Tesich’s post-truth politics and its current usage are juxtaposed, the two are in fact not identical in terms of what truth is and how it relates to politics. Against such consideration, this chapter provides a critical survey of selected historical events and theoretical considerations for the purpose of gaining a more nuanced understanding of the relation between truth and politics. Truth and Language One notable impact of post-truth politics is that language is being overtly deployed as a political weapon not only by politicians and those in power, but among the general population. It seems that once facts are irrelevant to the validity of what is being said, language becomes the platform for an all-out political contest in which what is said is no more than an act of will expressed as an assertion of power and/or an exercise in defiance. As early as in the writings of Thucydides (460–400 BCE), the vulnerability of logos – which is the human capacity for rational discourse in tumultuous times – was already noted. Thucydides belonged to a school of Greek thought which maintained that language is conventional and that the association between name and things is a result of ‘human use and habit’ rather than ‘nature or divine dispensation’ (Connor 1984, 99). The conventional nature of language means that it is incapable of providing its users with any independent criteria for judgement. In Thucydides’ study of the Peloponnesian War (431–405 BCE), the subversion of logos as seen in the manipulation of language was introduced through his account of the civil war in Corcyra (Thucydides 1972, 236-245). The war first broke out in 427 BCE between the pro-Athenian democratic faction and the pro-Spartan oligarchic faction before it spread to the rest of the Greek world. There was a general breakdown of law and order, resulting in extreme violence and death. Language underwent changes that were reflective of the events of the time. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) translated Thucydides’ description of the situation as follows: The received value of names imposed for signification of things, was changed into arbitrary. For inconsiderate boldness, was counted true-hearted manliness: provident deliberation, a handsome fear: modesty, the cloak of cowardice: to be wise in everything, to be lazy in everything... he that had been so provident as not to need to do the one or the other, was said to be a dissolver of society, and one that stood in fear of his adversary. In brief, he that could outstrip another in the doing of an evil act, or that could persuade another thereto that never meant it, was commended (Hobbes 1839–1845, 8: 348; Thucydides 1972, 242-243). What concerned Thucydides most was that the meanings of words are no more than linguistic conventions that require logos to support them. The Corcyrean civil war was a reminder that such capacity cannot be assumed. This is why history understood as an authentic account of what happens matters. Guided by logos, the historian’s task is ‘the search after truth’, which is established through ‘the absence of the fabulous,’ including ‘the rejection of myth and unverifiable stories’ (de Jonge 2017, 2). Thus, history plays an important role in facilitating the stability of language – without which distinctions and judgements cannot be rendered communicable. Just like Thucydides, Hobbes was a nominalist who subscribed to the view that there is no inherent meaning to words. Hobbes’ state of nature, where there is no common authority, is precisely one in which distinctions cannot be made. As Hobbes put it, there is ‘no Mine and Thine distinct’ nor is there distinction between ‘the notions of Right and Wrong, Justice and Injustice’ (1968, 188; emphasis in original). This is clearly an unsustainable condition for everyone. Behind Hobbes’ famous words that life in the state of nature is ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short’ is his uncompromising argument for the ‘Leviathan’, which is described by the late American political theorist, Sheldon Wolin (1922–2015), as the ‘sovereign definer’ (Hobbes 1968, 186; Wolin 2004, 238–243). Accordingly, the social contract is importantly a ‘linguistic contract’ that binds all parties to ‘general names agreed upon’ (Peters 1979, 125; Hobbes 1968, 111). Through Thucydides and Hobbes, we can identify a line of thinking that sees politics as a contestation over the use of language, which is based on shared conventions and norms. Thus understood, politics is not a collective quest for the true nature of our being or an epistemological exercise in pursuit of true knowledge. Rather, politics is about humans living with one another by finding a shared language to communicate with one another on matters that affect them all. Truth is in that sense contingent on what is being said as opposed to setting the standard for it. In other words, truth is the embodiment of shareability among us. While truth as such ensures the viability of a political entity, truth by no means represents a normative standard to adjudicate among contesting actors in what they say, let alone in what they do. During Thucydides’ times, ancient China was also experiencing a tumultuous time as the ruling Zhou dynasty deteriorated into the period of the Warring States (481–221 BCE). This was when the rulers of Zhou no longer presided over the territories brought under its control through conquest. Instead of professing allegiance to the Zhou royalty, the lords of these territories became kings themselves to rule over their own land. The period was one marked by endless military campaigns as each of the seven major states aimed to conquer the rest (Lewis 1999). Yet, the period was also known for its intellectual vibrancy as different thinkers challenged the restoring of order among these warring states – including offering ideas and advice to rulers on good governance. Among these thinkers was Confucius (551–479 BCE). His thought, which came to be known as Confucianism, went on to become the state ideology of China from the Han dynasty (206 BCE–222 CE) until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1911 when China became a republic. The founding text of Confucianism was the Analects, which is a collection of dialogues between Confucius and his students as recorded by them. One key concept Confucius advanced is the ‘rectification of names’. Though the term only appears in one exchange in the Analects, it is considered a major aspect of Confucius’ thought. Generations of Confucian scholars from past and present, including Western academics, have debated over its interpretation (Makeham 2003). The passage in question reads as follows: Zi Lu said: ‘The monarch of the state of Wei wants you to govern the country, what is the first thing you plan on doing?’ Confucius said: ‘First it is necessary to rectify the names.’Zi Lu said: ‘Is that really what has to be done? You are being too pedantic, aren’t you now? How will you rectify these names?’Confucius said: ‘Zhong You, you are too unrefined. A gentleman, faced with a matter that he does not understand, takes a skeptical attitude. If names are not correct, one cannot speak smoothly and reasonably, and if one cannot speak smoothly and reasonably, affairs cannot be managed successfully. If affairs cannot be managed successfully, rites and music will not be conducted. If rites and music are not conducted, punishments will not be suitable. And if punishments are not suitable, the common people will not know what to do. So, when the gentleman uses names, it is necessary to be able to speak so that people understand. If one can say it, one can definitely do it. A gentleman should not be careless with words’ (Analects 13:3 in Cao 2016, 148). This translation is offered by the contemporary philosopher Cao Feng. As Cao notes, the passage is what started the whole debate over ‘exactly what kind of names did Confucius... wish to rectify’ (Cao 2016, 148). Of the three major groups of interpretation examined by Cao, beginning with classical Confucian scholarship, one is arguably the most influential and certainly most pertinent to the issue of language and politics. This is the interpretation that was first associated with the Neo-Confucian master, Zhu Xi (1130–1200), who argued that the ‘rectification of names is simply the rectification of politics’ (Cao 2016, 149). Within this interpretive framework, rectification has the dual functions of correction and prescription by ensuring that predetermined hierarchical roles are strictly adhered to through following ‘the system of rites and propriety’ (Cao 2016, 151). In addition, the rectification of names entails ‘using names to rectify actuality’ (Cao 2016, 151). Yet Cao rejects this whole body of interpretive works by arguing that these were ideas developed later. Instead, Cao suggests the following: The original meaning of Confucius’ rectification of names may, then, be quite simple. Confucius did not mean to establish a concrete, normative system of “names”; rather, Confucius was simply the first person in history to realize or remark upon the importance of language in politics. As a politician, he noticed and foresaw the impact that the indeterminacy, ambiguity, and arbitrariness of names would have on politics. Confucius recognized the political consequences of language’s not accurately expressing meaning or not being accurately received by people. He realized the great role that names, as a means of distinguishing right and wrong and establishing norms, could play in society and politics (Cao 2016, 168). Scholarly debates aside, Cao’s view has the advantage of identifying an interpretation of this controversial exchange in the Analects that enables its readers to extrapolate from it the observation that the meaning of words depends as much on their users as on their interpreters; neither of which can be predetermined. Accordingly, a good ruler is someone who can speak without ambiguity to his subjects and make good his words through actions. Stated differently, Cao’s view on what concerned Confucius then, who was living through times of protracted political upheaval, is that language is an indispensable political tool for those in power and can be deployed by both good and bad rulers alike. To sum up, this historical survey shows that politics as a war of words is by no means a distinctive marker of contemporary politics nor the Western world. Be it ancient or current, east or west, language is subject to manipulation to serve political purposes and when there is an outright war of words that defies existing norms, it is indicative of a political situation in which people no longer share a language and truth becomes irrelevant. Accordingly, political order entails stability in language use. Truth and Politics As previously noted, current use of the term post-truth as an adjective to the term ‘politics’ suggests that once there was a time when politics aligned with truth. Indeed, if we start with Plato’s Republic as the key founding text of Western political thought, we see that the ideal polis (city-state of ancient Greece) is where truth and politics converge, and justice is achieved. Written around 380 BCE when Athens was still coping with its defeat by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian War, the Republic is a defence of the rule of the ‘philosopher king’, defined as someone who is ‘guided by the truth’ and is ‘always and in every way’ in pursuit of the truth (Plato 1974, 490a). For Plato, truth converges with virtues and hence, letting the philosopher take charge of politics is to let the wisest and the most virtuous lead the less wise and the less virtuous even if it requires compulsion (Plato 1974, 499b). In Plato’s words, ‘…until the philosophers attain power in a city there will be no respite from evil for either city or citizens…’ (Plato 1974, 501e). The uncompromising rule of philosopher-kings is made palatable by the claim that we are all ‘earth- born brothers’ with random mixtures of gold, silver, bronze and iron, but only the gold can rule (Plato 1974, 414–415). Understandably, academic debates over the interpretation of Plato’s Republic revolve around the question of whether truth as attained in philosophy can be realised in politics as action and whether such a connection is even desirable. Without getting into the details of these scholarly exchanges, I suggest that they all share the concern that truth acquired through the rigorous process of philosophical reasoning is not without problem when applied to the real world of living humans. This is because not all humans are philosophers – and indeed, in Plato’s view, not everyone is capable of becoming a philosopher given the protracted and arduous training that one needs to endure to become one. Hannah Arendt (1906–1975), a highly influential political philosopher of the twentieth century, notes that ‘Plato was the first to introduce the division between those who know and do not act and those who act and do not know’ and that such a separation has remained ‘at the root of all theories of domination’ (Arendt 1958, 223, 225). What Arendt points out in this remark is not the gap between theory and practice, but rather that Plato provides the normative ground for those who know the truth to tell those who do not know what to do. Arendt herself took on the challenge of understanding the relationship between truth and politics through her analysis of Nazism and Stalinism. Arendt’s insight, which was controversial when The Origins of Totalitarianism was published in 1951, was to identify Nazism and Stalinism as representative of a new form of political rule – totalitarianism – making it distinct from ‘other forms of political oppression... such as despotism, tyranny and dictatorship’ (Arendt 1973, 460). Arendt defines totalitarianism as a self- contained system of ideas driven by their ‘logic’ and marked by a mode of reasoning called ‘ideological thinking.’ Ideological thinking as such is a distinctive form of political reasoning defined by three characteristics. First, ideological thinking claims to provide a ‘total explanation’ of all historical happenings, encompassing the past, the present, and the future. Second, while ideological thinking is an attempt to account for ‘factual reality’ in its totality, this mode of thinking is paradoxically divorced from reality and experience. This is because experience, being rooted in specificity, is clearly limited in its claim to totality. It follows that as its third characteristic, ideological thinking aims to emancipate thought from the limitation imposed by experience through a ‘specific method of demonstration.’ The method involves arranging facts into an ‘absolutely logical procedure’ that starts from an ‘axiomatically accepted premise’. It is, in short, a ‘process of deduction from a premise’ – which is the only possible movement in the realm of logic that leads to one definitive conclusion. This is how the ‘logicality of ideological thinking’ provides the basis for total explanation and the ‘principle of action’ for totalitarian movement (Arendt 1973, 468–474). Stated differently, totalitarianism is a form of uncompromising idealism that exists in one’s head irrespective of shared reality as experienced. It is the perverse form of what Arendt later refers to as ‘rational truth’, which is the product of the ‘speculative mind’ that belongs to philosophy, mathematics and the sciences. The ‘speculative mind’ is the mind working on its way to generate axioms and theories by relying on the cognitive capacity of the human brain (Arendt 1977, 231). The presence of others has no bearing whatsoever on rational truth. In contrast, ‘factual truth’ is what happens when humans are ‘living and acting together’ (Arendt 1977, 231). Factual truth is therefore particular and temporal by definition. But more importantly, factual truth is ‘political by nature’ because it can only be validated in the context of the human community (Arendt 1977, 238). In other words, factual truth is about humans in their plurality rather than in their singularity. For factual truth to be sustainable, we need what Arendt calls ‘common sense’ – understood as ‘community sense’ (Arendt 1982, 72). There is also another distinction about truth that Arendt makes which is pertinent to understanding how totalitarianism works. The issue is whether the so-called totalitarian ideology is simply an unnecessarily cumbersome way of saying that it is an all-round and polished lie. Here, Arendt calls totalitarian ideology the ‘modern lie’ – in contrast to the ‘traditional lie’. The latter is restricted by two conditions: that it is a lie about the ‘particulars’ and that it deceives only the ‘enemy’ – which means that the liar is not engaged in self- deception. The modern lie, however, involves a ‘complete rearrangement of the whole factual texture’. It also intends to deceive everyone alike, to the extent that those who initiate the lie eventually ‘fall victims to their own falsehood’ (Arendt 1977, 249–254). This distinction between the traditional and modern lie is important. It indicates that not only is totalitarianism a lie, but the lie is in fact too big to fit into the standard meaning of the word. To tell a lie from truth, we need a common standard. In the case of a traditional lie, the common standard is precisely ‘the fabric of factuality’. As such, a lie always appears as a ‘tear’ to that fabric. Yet, modern lies require making a surrogate reality with a completely different context for facts to fit ‘without seam, crack, or fissure, exactly as the facts fitted into their original context’. Arendt notes that as long as those who concoct the surrogate reality are prepared to engage in self- deception to ‘create a semblance of truthfulness’, there is nothing to prevent ‘these new stories, images, and non-facts from becoming an adequate substitute for reality and factuality’ (Arendt 1977, 253–254). Totalitarianism therefore requires a person to stand outside of the system itself in order to make sense of it. Arendt points out that it is futile for us to argue with (for example) a Nazi or a Stalinist on race or class. To confront totalitarianism requires more than just a confrontation with specific facts. It is a more fundamental confrontation between reality as experienced and its total rejection. This means that Nazism and Stalinism are more than radical ways of conducting racial conflict or class struggle. Rather: Totalitarian politics – far from being simply antisemitic or racist or imperialist or communist – use and abuse their own ideological and political elements until the basis of factual reality, from which the ideologies originally derived their propaganda value– the value of struggle, for instance, or the interest conflicts between Jews and their neighbours – have all but disappeared (Arendt 1973, xv). Accordingly: The ideal subject of totalitarian rule is not the convinced Nazi or the convinced Communist, but people for whom the distinction between fact and fiction (that is, the reality of experience) and the distinction between true and false (that is, the standards of thought) no longer exist (Arendt 1973, 474). Who then is the ‘ideal subject’ of totalitarianism? Although there is a revival of interest in Arendt’s observation on truth and politics since the onset of post- truth politics, not enough has been said about her reply to the question (Hyvönen 2018; Klinkler 2018; Lee 2019; Zerilli 2020). Yet if we take a look at Arendt’s portrait of this ideal subject, her view is even more pertinent to our current challenge. As a self-contained system of ideas that is detached from experience, totalitarian thinking offers consistency in ways that reality cannot. Arendt notes that this kind of consistency is especially appealing to those who have lost a sense of bearing in the world (Arendt 1973, 353). They constitute what she calls the ‘masses’. The ‘mass man’ is thus a highly isolated and atomised individual, who is ‘obsessed by a desire to escape from reality’ (Arendt 1973, 318, 352). In his ‘essential homelessness’ the mass man can ‘no longer bear its accidental, incomprehensible aspects’ (Arendt 1973, 352). This longing for escape from reality is a ‘verdict against the world’ in which one is ‘forced to live’ but ‘cannot exist’ (Arendt 1973, 352). Such a situation is ripe for the ‘revolt of the masses’ against ‘common sense,’ which is ‘the result of their atomisation, of their loss of social status’ and with it, the ‘whole sector of communal relationships in whose framework common sense makes sense’ (Arendt 1973, 352). In short, the masses are people who are considered to be ‘superfluous or can be spared … [who] cannot be integrated into any organisation based on common interest’ (Arendt 1973, 311). Whether one agrees with Arendt’s analysis of the social conditions in the interwar years that led to the formation of the ‘masses’, her portrait of the ‘mass man’ is a powerful account of what can happen to an individual who has become disposable to the society that they used to belong to. Hand in hand with this phenomenon is indeed the collapse of ‘common sense’ that leaves the dislodged individual scrambling for reconnection. By offering the masses a substitute reality validated by the ‘logic of an idea’ rather than by experience, totalitarianism makes it possible for them to live in a world where there is no condition of plurality. Between ‘facing the anarchic growth and total arbitrariness of decay’ and ‘bowing down before the most rigid, fantastically fictitious consistency of an ideology’, the masses will likely ‘choose the latter’ (Arendt 1973, 352). A world created by ideology, then, is more attractive to the masses not because ‘they are stupid and wicked, but because in the general disaster this escape grants them a minimum of self- respect’ by conjuring up ‘a lying world of consistency which is more adequate to the needs of the human mind than reality itself’ (Arendt 1973, 353). Moreover, it is precisely this ability to guarantee consistency that makes it possible for the leaders of totalitarian movements to demand ‘total, unrestricted, unconditional and unalterable loyalty of the individual member’ (Arendt 1973, 323). While this chapter is not a study of the social factors that led to specific contemporary developments such as the result of the Brexit referendum or the election of Donald Trump in 2016, Arendt’s ‘mass man’ seem to have found their counterparts among the supporters of Brexit and Trumpism. Studies of voters’ profiles in both events point to a disproportionate share of supporters from white male lower income backgrounds without university educations. These are individuals who have either already lost their jobs to globalisation or who are at high risk of losing their job with very little capacity to be retrained for the twenty-first century market economy of advanced industrialised states (BBC 2016; Pew Research Center 2018). In short, these displaced workers are part of the tapestry forming the modern equivalent of Arendt’s ‘mass man’ – ready to be the recruits of totalitarianism. Conclusion If we step back to take a more comprehensive approach to the relationship between truth and politics, both historically and theoretically, it is not so obvious that 2016 is a defining moment. From ancient China and ancient Greece to our so-called post-truth age, the indeterminacy of language appears to be a persistent political challenge. Language is always open to manipulation by its users to serve power. Nonetheless, the tendency these days is to single out the ubiquity of social media and the proliferation of Internet platforms as the incubator for the countless cyberwars of words that in turn fuel the real world of politics. In this context, language is no longer the conveyor of objective facts and accurate information, but rather the medium for expressing subjective opinions and feelings, as captured by the Oxford Dictionary’s definition of the term ‘post-truth politics’. In contrast, the historical approach used in this chapter shows that it is in fact too easy to point the figure at the Internet and digital communication for the political challenge that we face today. What is being suggested here is that with or without the Internet, language, be it used to convey facts or emotions, is simply a tool for communication that humans have invented. While language per se cannot adjudicate what is true or not true, what is right or wrong, it embodies such capacity when language is a shared norm. That shared norm cannot be sustained without some semblance of cohesion in any given community. Any war of words, irrespective of its platform, is indicative of the breakdown of such cohesiveness. Returning to the original context in which the term post-truth politics was first used by Steve Tesich helps to identify the important distinction between truth as the standard for knowledge and truth as the standard for action. The two do not necessarily coincide. Placed in the context of the history of political thought, this distinction is in fact at the heart of Plato’s Republic. Yet when the philosopher as the quintessential bearer of truth becomes king, the polis that he rules over is far from the ideal of a just state that it purports to be. Instead, it is one that is held together by lies and coercion. What Arendt reveals through her study of Nazism and Stalinism is that it is dangerous for the kind of truth that philosophy generates – ‘rational truth’ – to become the guide to politics. Politics guided by rational truth can only be uncompromising and follows a logic of its own that cannot afford the ambiguity and indeterminacy of reality as lived experiences of humans. A world of post-truth politics can be an opportunity for a new kind of politics if it is indeed about dismantling the idea that truth is the ideal that politics should strive for. But as it stands, the post-truth politics of today is more about invoking a past that never exists to judge the presence as a crisis in naming when the real crisis is about rebuilding a shared space that has room for all – be they of the left, right or centre; cosmopolitan or parochial; civic-minded or self-centred; liberal-minded or bigoted. Politics is and always will be about striving for that space, without which no human can thrive. References Arendt, Hannah. 1958. The Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Arendt, Hannah. 1973. The Origins of Totalitarianism. Rev. ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Arendt, Hannah. 1977. “Truth and Politics.” In Between Past and Future, 227–264. New York: Penguin Books. Arendt, Hannah. 1982. Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy, edited by Ronald Beiner. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. British Broadcasting Corporation. 2016. “Brexit vote: The breakdown.” BBC News, December 7, 2016. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-38227674 Cao, Feng. 2016. “A New Examination of Confucius’ Rectification of Names.” Journal of Chinese Humanities 2: 147–171. https://doi-org.subzero.lib. uoguelph.ca/ doi/ 10.1163/23521341-12340032. Connor, W. Robert. 1984. Thucydides. Princeton: Princeton University Press. de Jonge, Casper C. 2017. “Dionysius of Halicarnassus on Thucydides.” in The Oxford Handbook of Thucydides, edited by Sara Forsdyke, Edith Foster, and Ryan Balot. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/ oxfordhb/9780199340385.013.17 https://www-oxfordhandbooks-com.subzero. lib.uoguelph.ca/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199340385.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199340385 Hyvönen, Ari-Elmeri. 2018. “Careless Speech: Conceptualizing Post-Truth Politics.” New Perspectives 26 (3): 31–55. https://www.proquest.com/ scholarly-journals/careless-speech-conceptualizing-post-truth/ docview/2204515132/se-2?accountid=11233. Hobbes, Thomas. 1839–1845. The English Works of Thomas Hobbes, edited by Sir William Molesworth. London: John Bohn. Vol. 8. Klinkner, Melanie. 2018. “Reasonable Truth.” International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics 14 (3): 393–99. doi:10.1386/macp.14.3.393_7. Lee, Haiyan. 2019. “When Nothing Is True, Everything Is Possible: On Truth and Power by Way of Socialist Realism.” PMLA/Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 134 (5). Cambridge University Press: 1157–64. https://doi.org/10.1632/pmla.2019.134.5.1157 Lewis, Mark E. 1999. “Warring States Political History.” In The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC, edited by Michael Loewe and Edward Shaughnessy, 587–650. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Makeham, John. 2003. “Zheng ming (Rectification of names).” In RoutledgeCurzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism, edited by Xinzhong Yao. Vol. 2: 813-814. New York: Routledge. Oxford Languages, n. d. “Word of the Year 2016.” Accessed 19 August 2017. https://languages.oup.com/word-of-the-year/2016/ Peters, Richard. 1979. Hobbes. Westport: Greenwood Press. Pew Research Center. 2018. “An examination of the 2016 electorate, based on validated voters.” Report, August 9, 2018. https://www.pewresearch.org/ politics/2018/08/09/an-examination-of-the-2016-electorate-based-on- validated-voters/ Plato. 1974. Republic. Translated by G. M. A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hackett. Tesich, Steve. 1992. “Watergate Syndrome: A Government of Lies.” The Nation: 12-14. January 6/13, 1992. Thucydides. 1972. The Peloponnesian War. Translated by Rex Warner. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. Wolin, Sheldon. 2004. Politics and Vision: Continuity and Innovation in Westen Political Thought. Expanded Edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Zerilli, Linda M. G. 2020. ‘Fact-Checking and Truth-Telling in an Age of Alternative Facts.’ Le foucaldien 6, no. 1: 2, 1–22. Theresa Man Ling Lee is an Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of Guelph (Canada). Lee is a political theorist who specializes in contemporary political thought. Her research and teaching areas include continental philosophy, Marxism and critical theory, feminism, postmodernism, philosophy of social science, psychoanalysis, multiculturalism, human rights, disability studies, modern Chinese political thought and comparative political theory. Lee has published on a wide range of subjects in these areas, including intercultural pedagogy and the challenges of teaching as a person with multiple minority designations in a Canadian university classroom.
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Some of the largest employers in Washington say the warning signs of an economic decline are clear, and are now urging city and county leaders to pivot quickly.
Minnesota health department specialist talks Asthma Peak Week
If you or someone you know lives with asthma, right now isn't just the start of fall, it's historically the most dangerous time of the year. The third week of September is known as Asthma Peak Week. Every year around this time, hospitals and emergency rooms see a spike is asthma attacks and respiratory emergencies. Andrea Hickle, the asthma program manager for the Minnesota Department of Health, joined FOX 9 News at 5 to talk about Asthma Peak Week.
Cincinnati Public Schools announces 2026 athletics hall of fame class
With graduating years ranging from 1897 to 2020, the Cincinnati Public Schools athletics hall of fame is adding 14 new members with 2026 class.
Cincinnati Public Schools announces 2026 athletics hall of fame class
With graduating years ranging from 1897 to 2020, the Cincinnati Public Schools athletics hall of fame is adding 14 new members with 2026 class.
Apple Home’s new security camera features cost up to $60 a month
Apple Intelligence is expensive
What execs and politicians are saying about slowing down AI development
Who is supposed to put the brakes on AI?
Health officials confirm case of measles in Jackson County
The Eastern Jackson County resident was vaccinated and will remain isolated until no longer contagious.
Chelan County Sheriff's Office
This National Co-Responder Week, we recognize and thank our Behavioral Health Unit (BHU) for the work they do every day, alongside patrol and throughout the year. Their partnership brings together...
Sporting KC Weekly Schedule: Sept. 14-20, 2026
Sporting Kansas City II News: The official source for all SKC II news, photos, videos, highlights, and more.
iOS 27 and iOS 26.7 Fix More Than 100 Security Bugs
Today's iOS 27 update addresses over 100 security vulnerabilities, which is a good reason to install the new software. If you don't want to update to iOS 27 yet, Apple also released iOS 26.7 with over 80 security fixes. 75 of the fixes are shared across both updates, so iOS 26.7 addresses many of the same issues. There are multiple kernel fixes, including one that could allow a malicious app to gain root access and another that could allow for Bluetooth remote code execution.
Will Yordan Alvarez win Triple Crown? Astros slugger chases history
Empowering Youth Sports Culture helps kid's mental health
The Move Your Body, Calm Your Mind Campaign provides guidance and resources on physical activity and mental well-being for Californians of all ages. The goal is to increase awareness among all age groups about the benefits of movement, sport, nutrition, and overall physical and mental wellness. Now there's a sharper focus not just on the athletes but on the coaches, in making sure kids stay in the game. We spoke with Olympic Gold Medal figure skater, Fremont's own Kristi Yamaguchi to Mornings on 2, to talk about this.
Rams' Sean McVay Reveals Injury Updates on Multiple Key Players
Los Angeles Rams head coach Sean McVay reveals injury updates on multiple key players following the Week 1 loss.
Governor Reeves announces Rural Health Transformation Program Awards for Mississippi providers
Governor Reeves Announces 167 Rural Health Transformation Program Awards Totaling More Than $104 Million
Sean McVay offers positive updates on 3 Rams injuries
The Rams could get a little bit healthier before Week 2.
Rams' Sean McVay reveals Aaron Donald update for Week 2
Aaron Donald's status for the Rams' second game of 2026 is up in the air.
The ladies of the Flew Here, Grew Here podcast discuss entertainment headlines
Lady Gaga is a mom, and the Nashville airport will be named after the late great Dolly Parton. The ladies dish on these headlines and more with Alex.
Sean McVay Meter: Fans’ confidence in coach after Week 1
Are you concerned about the direction that Sean McVay has the Rams going?
Radio on the Lake Theatre unveils 2026-27 season featuring ‘War of the Worlds,’ ‘Casablanca’
The locally based theater company's 7-show lineup opens Sept. 27 with “The Maltese Falcon” in person at Dunham Tavern Museum and on the radio at WBWC 88.3 FM.
September is National Gum Health Month
Dr. Kooper Ruminer, Cosmetic Dentist and Smile Specialist, joined Fox 5 DC.
O'Neill's team selection questioned as Celtic wilt at Ibrox
Manager Martin O'Neill will have to face criticism over his Celtic team selection in Sunday's derby defeat to Rangers after "too many players didn't show up" at Ibrox, says former striker Cillian Sheridan. The ex-forward was shocked to see winger Sebastian Tounekti start ahead of summer signing Haissem Hassan, who was introduced as a half-time substitute in the 3-0 League Cup quarter-final loss. Sheridan says it will be no surprise to see O'Neill change his line-up for Thursday's Europa League opener at home to Ferencvaros, which comes just three days before a rematch with Rangers in the Scottish Premiership.
CVS Health Flagged “High-Trend” Costs on September 9. Here’s Where the Stock Could Go
CVS Health told the Wells Fargo Healthcare Conference that medical costs are still running hot, and the warning pulled the whole managed care sector down with it. Underneath the caution, management detailed an operating-efficiency push most investors skipped past.
Simmons Foods CEO focused on ‘generational perspective’
Todd Simmons, now more than a decade into his role as CEO of Simmons Foods, said it’s his dream job. He always knew that being part of the Northwest Arkansas...
Anthropic selects Nasdaq for IPO, Business Insider reports
U.S. tech startup Anthropic has selected Nasdaq for its potential initial public offering, Business Insider reported on Sunday, citing a person familiar with the company's plans.
Is The Health Insurer Rebound Complete? Some Seem To Think So
An increasing number of industry analysts say costs are under control for the likes of CVS Health, Centene, Cigna, Elevance Health, Humana, UnitedHealth Group and others.
Inside a Philadelphia barbershop, Black men debate their political past and future
Political strategist Khalil Thompson is on a mission to understand why some Black men leaned Republican in recent elections.
Inside a Philadelphia barbershop, Black men debate their political past and future
Political strategist Khalil Thompson is on a mission to understand why some Black men leaned Republican in recent elections.
Team’s Up – Hassan benched, CCV and Tierney start for Celtic
Martin O’Neill has named his Celtic team for this afternoon’s Glasgow Derby against Rangers. The Scottish Champions travel to Ibrox for the Premier Sports Quarter Final but there will be no away f...
Today’s famous birthdays list for September 13, 2026 includes celebrities Tyler Perry, Lili Reinhart
Tyler Perry and Lili Reinhart share a birthday today. Check out our list of celebrities and other famous people with birthdays on September 13, 2026, see photos and find out a fun fact about each person.
Joey Votto calls Yadier Molina class player, Cardinals class franchise
Former Reds great Joey Votto called Cardinals Hall of Fame inductee Yadier Molina a "class player," and St. Louis a "class franchise."
Trumann woman arrested after meth, fentanyl and weed seized from business
A Trumann, Arkansas woman has been arrested after a search warrant at a business turned up meth, fentanyl, marijuana, paraphernalia and money, according to the Trumann Police Department.
King County hosts public health gun buy back in support of Suicide Prevention Month
September is Suicide Prevention Month, and in Shoreline on Saturday, King County held a public health gun buy back event. According to the CDC, suicide has accounted for the majority of firearm deaths every year since 1995.
Can CVS Health (CVS) Still Look Cheap After A 50% Run?
CVS Health has delivered a strong 49.8% gain over the past three years, yet its valuation checks still point to a stock that looks cheap on broad measures rather than fully priced in after the run. The 49.8% share price gain over three years suggests investors have already rewarded CVS Health for progress in the business, so the question is how much upside is left from here. Recent bullish analyst commentary that highlights recovery at Aetna and the potential return of share buybacks can...
LA Rams’ Offensive Split Exposes Clear Problem After 49ers Loss
The Los Angeles Rams assembled one of the NFL’s deepest-looking skill groups around Puka Nacua and Davante Adams, but their season opener sent an early warning about what happens when Sean McVay turns to a third wide receiver.Sports Illustrated‘s Blaine Grisak highlighted a striking personnel split from Los Angeles’ 27-7 loss to the San Francisco 49ers […] The post LA Rams’ Offensive Split Exposes Clear Problem After 49ers Loss appeared first on HEAVY.
Politics Unusual: Former Governors Pataki and DiFrancesco on their experience with 9/11
In this episode of Politics Unusual, FOX 5 NY's political reporter Morgan McKay speaks with former New York Gov. George Pataki and former New Jersey Gov. Donald DiFrancesco about their experience leading their states during the time of the 9/11 terror attacks.
Player Availability Report: #SKCvLAFC
Player Availability Report is SportingKC.com’s look at the latest status updates around the team ahead of upcoming matches and is presented by Saint Luke’s. All details listed are from the league’s official Player Status Report that is submitted the day prior to the match. Sporting Kansas City returns home this
World Business Chicago defends Johnson videos but leaves key questions unanswered
State Rep. Curtis Tarver isn’t satisfied, plans to file legislation.
World Business Chicago defends Johnson videos but leaves key questions unanswered
State Rep. Curtis Tarver isn’t satisfied, plans to file legislation.
‘Our hearts are broken today’: NOTO Arts sends condolences after double homicide in North Topeka
The NOTO Arts & Entertainment District has released a statement following a double homicide that occurred in the area on Thursday.
Swine Health Stalwart Honored as NC State Distinguished Alumni
Dr. Harry Snelson, an NC State College of Veterinary Medicine graduate who has been executive director of the American Association of Swine Veterinarians since 2018, has been recognized as an NC State Distinguished Alumni for his decades of work supporting swine health. Snelson, who also served two years as the director of science and technology…
GitLab CVSS 10 File-Read Flaw Draws In-the-Wild Probes After Disclosure
GitLab patched CVE-2026-85706, a CVSS 10 path traversal flaw enabling unauthenticated file reads, as in-the-wild probes began.
CVC in final talks for EQT's Ginko China business, sources say
CVC Capital Partners has entered final talks to buy the EQT-owned mainland China business of contact lens maker Ginko International, four people with knowledge of the matter said.
CVC in final talks for EQT’s Ginko China business, sources say
By Kane Wu and Yantoultra Ngui HONG KONG, Sept 11 (Reuters) - CVC Capital Partners has entered final talks to buy the EQT-owned mainland China business of contact lens maker Ginko International, four people with knowledge of the matter said. • A deal...
Charlie Kirk built a political movement. His followers say politics was never the point
Speakers Glenn Beck and Michael Knowles said Kirk will be remembered for religious impact
Pleasanton police investigating string of predawn business burglaries
Pleasanton police are investigating multiple burglaries that took place before dawn on Thursday. Nearly 20 businesses, mostly restaurants, were broken into. Investigators believe this is the result of the same crew of burglars.
Chicago health officials warn of possible measles exposure at Union Station
Health officials are warning of a possible measles exposure at Chicago's Union Station after an out-of-state traveler with a confirmed case passed through the station late last month.
Apple's Foldable Duo Represents 'Notable Form-Factor Change' for iPhone Lineup, UBS Says
Apple (AAPL) new foldable iPhone represents a "notable form-factor change" for the iPhone lineup, wh
Tips on how to turn your side hustle into a business
Podcast host and business advisor David Shands gives tips on how to turn your side hustle into a successful business.
Supreme Court again blocks new Missouri congressional map favoring GOP
The ruling is the latest twist in an intense legal drama that has plunged the state into electoral confusion.
Five pillars of healthy aging
The five pillars of healthy aging are chronological, social, functional, physiological, and biological. Moving daily helps promote cognitive health.
Analysts split on Apple after foldable iPhone Duo debut
Investing.com -- Analysts offered a mixed verdict on Apple's "Surprise and Shine" event, where new chief executive John Ternus unveiled the company's first foldable iPhone, the Duo, priced at $1,999.
Enbridge to Buy Tallgrass Crude Pipeline Business for $2.55 Billion
Enbridge is expanding its U.S. crude pipeline network with a major Rockies-to-Cushing acquisition.
Helena Foulkes will defeat Rhode Island Gov. Dan McKee, CNN projects, marking a rare incumbent primary loss
Former CVS executive Helena Foulkes will win the Democratic nomination for governor of Rhode Island, CNN’s Decision Desk projects, defeating incumbent Gov. Dan McKee as she capitalized on voter frustration over the partial closure of a key bridge and the ensuing traffic chaos.
MN rabies scare: Health department warns of possible false test results
The Minnesota Department of Health says ASAP Wildlife Services allegedly failed to consistently submit bats for proper rabies testing, leaving some customers in the dark about possible exposures. FOX 9's Corin Hoggard has the latest details.
Dem incumbent becomes first sitting governor to lose primary since 2018
Costco board member, former CVS exec avenges narrow 2022 loss to Gov. Dan McKee in high-stakes Rhode Island rematch, causing sitting governor to become first to lose party primary in several years. OR Rhode Island Democrat Gov. Dan McKee fends off challenger Helena Foulkes for second time, avoiding first primary loss by sitting governor since 2018.
Paving business claims heavy machinery stolen in Horry County
An asphalt company co-founder is claiming heavy machinery has been stolen from him and the company.
ICE activity on the rise in Pittsburgh’s Beechview neighborhood, business owner says
How 9/11 Changed New York—And America
The attacks 25 years ago inspired a sense of national unity. It has since been shattered.
Health officials investigate possible Dengue death
The Tampa Bay area remains the epicenter of Florida's Dengue Fever outbreak. Now, the Florida Department of Health is investigating a possible death in Hillsborough County. FOX 13's Aaron Mesmer reports.
Jacksonville mother files lawsuit over court-ordered C-section, alleges UF Health falsely reported she was suicidal
Cherise Doyley, the Jacksonville mother who was in active labor when a judge appeared on a tablet in her hospital room to consider whether doctors could perform a C-section against her wishes, has officially filed a federal lawsuit against UF Health and several individuals involved in the 2024 case.
Gov. McKee faces tough challenge from Foulkes in Rhode Island Democratic primary
Rhode Island Gov. Dan McKee is hoping to avoid becoming the first incumbent governor in any state to lose a primary since 2018 as he tries to fend off an intraparty challenge from former CVS executive Helena Foulkes in Wednesday's state primary.
Veterans' mental health challenges
For many veterans, coming home does not mean leaving the impact of military service behind. As we approach the 25th anniversary of 9/11, it is important to recognize the mental health struggles many veterans face—often without treatment. Rawle Andrews jr., executive director of the American Psychiatric Association Foundation, discusses this with Good Day Austin.
CVS Health Corporation (CVS) is Attracting Investor Attention: Here is What You Should Know
Recently, Zacks.com users have been paying close attention to CVS Health (CVS). This makes it worthwhile to examine what the stock has in store.
NFL stops Vikings from signing Kenny Dyson to practice squad after he was waived-injured
Wall Street Loves CVS Health Stock Right Now. Should You?
The stock is down about 13% from its 52-week high.
A rare thing in American politics may happen in Rhode Island on Wednesday
Gov. Dan McKee barely beat Helena Foulkes in 2022. For Wednesday’s rematch, the former CVS executive has outraised him and appears well positioned to win.
Why Aaron Donald is not traveling with LA Rams to Australia amid highly anticipated NFL return
Aaron Donald will not travel with the Los Angeles Rams to Australia for their season opener against the San Francisco 49ers as the team takes a cautious approach to his highly anticipated NFL return. Rams head coach Sean McVay confirmed Tuesday that the 35-year-old defensive tackle will miss Thursday’s game in Melbourne and will not even make the trip with the team.
Winterville man accused of assaulting women with keyboard, officers at ECU Health Medical Center
A Winterville man has been arrested after warrants say he assaulted several women and officers at ECU Health Medical Center.
Trump gave $45,000 cash gifts to Natalie Harp, two other close aides
Financial disclosures show the sums were equivalent to nearly one-third of each of their salaries. Experts say the gifts are without precedent and may violate the law.
Microsoft breaks Patch Tuesday record with 974-CVE deluge
Adobe also brought goodies to the patch party and they deserve immediate attention
New transfer agreements link FVTC business degrees to UW-Oshkosh
Four new pathways cover accounting, finance, business management and marketing
Sporting KC Weekly Schedule: Sept. 8-13, 2026
Sporting Kansas City II News: The official source for all SKC II news, photos, videos, highlights, and more.
Superior Health Foundation awards $271K to 11 UP health initiatives
Among the recipients are the U.P. Health Impact Grant to Upper Great Lakes Family Health Center’s Sawyer Dental Project, four additional U.P. Health Impact Grants and six Equipment Grants addressing behavioral health/SUD, healthy food and wellness, maternal/infant health, accessibility, EMS/first aid and hospice.
Appleton West football the focus on Varsity Roundtable
The Terrors are off to their first 3-0 start since 2004. Team members join us on tonight’s Varsity Roundtable.
Apple to Introduce All-New 'Readiness' App Tomorrow
Apple plans to announce an all-new "Readiness" app during its "Surprise and Shine" event this Wednesday, according to Bloomberg's Mark Gurman. In a social media post today, Gurman said the "Readiness" app will be a "variant" of the existing Vitals app on the Apple Watch. "The idea is to better compete with software from Whoop and Oura," he said.
Richfield estate built for entertainment lists at nearly $4M
This Richfield estate has details that would cost millions to replicate, its agent said.
Christal Jordan has the latest in entertainment headlines
The Duke & Duchess of Sussex are back in the UK, and Phaedra Parks has a new beau. Keep up with Christal on social media @threalchristaljordan
Microsoft breaks another patch Tuesday record
Windows and security engineers have had a busy summer.
MDI Health to Honor Mount Desert Nursing Association with 2026 Impact Award
BAR HARBOR—MDI Health will honor Mount Desert Nursing Association (MDNA) as its 2026 Community Partner of the Year during the organization’s Annual Meeting and Community Celebration on Tuesday, September 15. MDNA will receive the 2026 Impact Award in recognition of its longstanding commitment to providing in-home nursing, physical and occupational therapy, and medical equipment to the Island region. By caring for people where they live, MDNA helps patients remain safely and independently at home, providing reassurance and support to their families. “Mount Desert Nursing Association exemplifies the power of community partnership,” said Chrissi Maguire, President and CEO of MDI Health. “Its nurses bring skilled, compassionate care directly into people’s homes, helping patients navigate illness, recovery, and some of life’s most difficult moments. We are deeply grateful for MDNA’s service and the important role it plays in the health of our community.” MDNA works closely with MDI Health providers and care teams to support continuity of care following hospitalization, surgery, illness, or changes in health. Its personalized services extend care beyond the hospital and help ensure patients receive the support they need close to home. “For 77 years, MDNA has been here for our community, helping our neighbors recover and remain safely at home. Our long-standing partnership with MDI Health is an important part of making that possible. Together, we help ensure a seamless transition from hospital to home and provide patients with the continued care they need. We are incredibly grateful for this recognition and especially proud of our talented and hardworking team,” said Amy McVety, Executive Director of Mount Desert Nursing Association. The Impact Award will be presented during MDI Health’s Community Celebration from 5 to 7 p.m. at the Bar Harbor Club. The event will also recognize outstanding employees, volunteers, and trustees; celebrate MDI Health’s achievements over the past year; and mark a transition in Board leadership as Madeleine Braun, PhD, MBA, prepares to succeed Martha Wagner, PhD, as chair. The celebration will feature music, refreshments, the MDI Health Auxiliary Raffle, and a cash bar. MDI Health’s Annual Business Meeting will take place from 3:30 to 4 p.m. via Zoom. These events are free and open to the public, but space is limited. To reserve your spot, contact Patrianna Anderson at 207-288-5082, ext. 1432, or visit mdihospital.org/communitycelebration. Subscribe Share Leave a comment
Alabama Department of Mental Health highlights life-saving resources for Prevention and Recovery Months
This September, the Alabama Department of Mental Health and statewide partners are working to raise awareness, fight stigma, and share life-saving resources.
Why Democrats’ priorities shifted from abortion to affordability in Bucks County’s key midterm races
Democrats in Bucks County are fine-tuning their message ahead of must-win races in November. Reproductive rights had once been center stage in recent campaigns
Grand Canyon businesses face post-flood cancellations
Grand Canyon businesses face financial strain after severe flash flooding. FOX 10's Megan Spector hears from a local owner feeling the impacts.
Tata launches €3.82 billion Iveco takeover that could combine two major African truck networks
Tata Motors has opened its €3
Bears season preview: Health, roster battles and a tough schedule
FOX Chicago's Cassie Carlson discusses the Bears’ season opener, remaining roster questions and whether the team can match last year’s success.
Lindsay Clancy trial sparks mental health debate
In the aftermath of Lindsay Clancy's murder trial, clinical psychologists are calling for more awareness around rare postpartum conditions. Reporter Deborah Valentine has more.
Social media and youth mental health
Dr. Jeffrey Rubin, psychotherapist and psychoanalyst, joined Fox 5 DC.
Family of armed man shot by police speaks out after calling police over mental health crisis
Family members are demanding answers after Phoenix police shot and killed 20-year-old Johnathan Delgado in an alley near 18th Avenue and Cheryl Drive following a mental health call. FOX 10's Jacob Luthi hears more from the family.