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French election politics bring surrogacy back into Europe’s spotlight
The former prime minister's call to legalize surrogacy has drawn opposition from across France's political spectrum, including within his own party, with possible consequences across Europe.
Efzimfotase alfa demonstrated improvements in bone health in treatment-naïve pediatric patients with hypophosphatasia achieving median difference of 1.67 vs placebo in RGI-C Score at week 25 in MULBERRY Phase III trial
Positive results from the MULBERRY Phase III trial showed that efzimfotase alfa (ALXN1850), an investigational enzyme replacement therapy, demonstrated a statistically significant and clinically meaningful improvement in bone health in children (2 to
Iraq detains politicians, officials in anti-corruption crackdown
Iraqi security forces arrested politicians and senior officials early on Sunday as part of a broader anti-corruption campaign ordered by Prime Minister Ali al‑Zaidi, a government spokesperson said.
The weekend of Andy Burnham’s life - Live Updates
If England wins the World Cup, one pollster says the new prime minister should call a snap election.
Andy Burnham distanced himself from UK Prime Minister Starmer, but may be stuck with his policies
Burnham, the former mayor of Greater Manchester who was sworn into Parliament hours after Starmer announced his resignation on Monday, will be constrained by the platform the center-left Labour Party was elected on that decisively ended 14 years of Conservative rule in 2024.
Could Israel’s coming election see an end to Netanyahu’s political career?
Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu faces mounting political, legal and US pressure ahead of crucial elections.
Days Ahead to Show If Burnham Plays Politics Better Than Starmer
Standing across from Keir Starmer in the Commons chamber this week, opposition leader Kemi Badenoch drew on a particularly violent metaphor for how the Labour Party had ditched him when she conjured up an image of “400 knives stuck in the prime minister’s back.”
Andy Burnham distanced himself from UK Prime Minister Starmer, but may be stuck with his policies
Andy Burnham has set himself apart from the man he expects to replace as British prime minister
Why Belgium’s prime minister isn’t cheering on the Red Devils - Live Updates
The World Cup isn’t easy for Bart De Wever.
How should European scientists respond to the US AI kill switch?
Earlier in June, Europe’s worst fears of technological dependence were confirmed when the White House ordered the AI firm Anthropic to stop non-US citizens using its leading models. This kill-switch moment crystalised anxieties in Brussels that the continent, lagging the US on the creation of leading-edge AI models, is now a technological of vassal of Washington. The shock has specific implications for European scientists and universities. Some governments are now worried that with AI being integrated into labs, Donald Trump now has his finger hovering over an off switch for European science. “Having restrictions on this tool, it can have an impact on our own research,” said France’s research minister, Philippe Baptiste, at the VivaTech conference in Paris on June 18.Baptiste, himself a former academic, said that colleagues in mathematics had recently warned him they were now cut off from leading-edge US models, risking their work. “This model is not available anymore now because of the US restriction, and for the first time this had an impact on mathematics,” a field where large language models (LLMs) are making a significant contribution, said Baptiste. So, should European scientists avoid relying on US models in the future? Or would this be a self-harming overreaction? And how is AI being used in science, anyway? What happened?On June 12, it emerged that Washington, citing cybersecurity concerns, had ordered Anthropic to stop non-US citizens using two models: Claude Mythos 5, and Claude Fable 5, a version of Mythos but with guardrails to prevent abuse. Anthropic said Washington’s concerns were overblown. But forced to follow the order, yet with no way to check who was using the models, the company suddenly shut down access for everyone, US citizens included. There’s still no agreement on how to restore broad access. But last week, Bloomberg reported that select US companies, and the US government, still had access to Mythos despite the ban, but the EU’s cybersecurity agency Enisa had been shut out. Class division of researchersIn the longer term, access outside the US should be restored, said Marcel Salathé, co-director of the AI centre at the Federal Polytechnic School of Lausanne (EPFL), because a permanent restriction would be financially ruinous to US AI firms. “Even Trump will eventually budge to economic pressure,” he said.However, US AI firms might end up operating rather like banks, doing due diligence on users of their leading-edge AI models, he went on.European scientists are unlikely to fall foul of such checks, he said. But having a Chinese postgraduate in their lab, or doing a type of research the US disapproved of, could potentially result in access being denied. “It will create a sort of class division of researchers,” he said. More than frontier modelsHowever, successfully deploying AI in science is about far more than just having access to leading LLMs such as Mythos.Instead, many science-specific tools, most famously Alphafold, which predicts protein folding structures, require “far less” computing power to train than frontier models, well within the capabilities of European supercomputers, according to a recent analysis by the Arq Foundation, a Brussel-based AI think tank. Instead, tools such as Alphafold are possible because certain fields, like protein folding, weather prediction or astronomy, have large, clean, standardised datasets that can be used to train predictive models. Rather than compute, “data is the central constraint for AI for science,” the report says. For example, a less powerful physics model trained on CERN’s data “will be more valuable than the best model without certain data,” said Bengüsu Özcan, author of the report. European advantage?Europe could therefore steal a march by using its scientific data and infrastructure to create models US digital giants cannot. “They might actually match or go even beyond what these big [US] companies are doing,” said Özcan.Indeed, some European start-ups hope to create automated testing labs to create the kind of standardised data that could speed up the discovery of new materials. Materials scientists say there’s currently too little data to train models. AI scientistsHowever, even if the bottleneck for AI in science is often data, rather than compute, being at the mercy of the US for LLM access could still become a problem for European scientists. A new class of “AI scientists” based on leading LLMs is also emerging, Özcan’s report says.Unlike domain-specific tools like Alphafold, these try to automate day-to-day scientific work, by providing an overarching tool that coordinates specific models to synthesise existing literature, generate hypotheses or run analysis of data. The problem for Europe, however, is that these tools are sometimes based on US leading models. Google Deepmind’s AI Co-Scientist, for example, is built on Google’s Gemini LLM. Systematic failureThese scientific automation tools are still in their early stages, and still exhibit “systematic failures on scientific tasks,” Özcan’s report says. One of the problems is that the messy, day-to-day process of scientific discovery is largely not documented, meaning LLMs don’t have a good source of data to learn how scientists actually work. Meanwhile, some tasks, such as literature synthesis, don’t typically require access to leading edge models.However, the performance of AI scientific assistants could improve as companies such as Google pour resources into developing them. Rely on US“Unfortunately, for scientific assistants, there is not much we can do right now except rely on US frontier AI,” said Antoine Bosselut, a natural language processing expert based at EPFL. Chinese-built open models, which can run on local computers, lessening the risk of a shutdown, are touted as one alternative to US dependence. There’s also Mistral, once seen as Europe’s main AI hope, but the Paris-based company has seen its recent models fall behind in performance. But the Chinese alternatives are generally not as capable as US frontier AI models, said Bosselut, unless paired with fiddly, custom tools that allows them to act as independent agents. “Most scientists do not have the time,” he said. Don’t jump ship yetAlthough the kill switch moment is seen a warning shot for European scientists, it doesn’t mean labs should abandon US AI tools immediately. “I do not think the right response is simply to abandon US-based models and systems under the banner of sovereignty or independence,” said Mattias Björnmalm, secretary general of the Cesaer university association. “That would be an overreaction.”Related articlesEuropean sovereignty in AI requires ‘ugly trade-offs,’ say experts Robotic lab start-up makes case for €500M EU-funded materials testing facilityAI in science: is it useful? Instead, European researchers need to ask themselves whether they’re becoming dependent on technology that could be turned off in Washington, said Özcan. “They might not see this today, but they should really start asking this question,” she said. European researchers need a plan B, said Salathé. “I would recommend to every researcher, very proactively explore alternatives.”Own toolsIn addition, Björnmalm and others want European research institutions to develop their own scientific AI tools.Instead of signing AI deals with US digital giants, European universities should be using this money to create their own models, which may end up being superior for research, said Sabine Leonelli, an expert on the use of AI in science at the Technical University of Munich. “Universities in Europe seem to be happy to sign commercial contracts with US companies on the assumption [their AI tools] are better,” she said. But US frontier LLMs are typically opaque, and have been developed without independent scientific input, she said. “This is not good enough for science.”Last year, Swiss researchers released Apertus, an LLM designed to be completely transparent, from its development methods to its training data. The idea is that this makes scientific tools built on top of the model far more reproducible than with closed, commercial alternatives.“Europe needs more of this: serious capacity-building that gives researchers, universities and companies credible options,” said Björnmalm.
Trump describes Burnham as 'the mayor of a town' and 'extremely liberal'
Donald Trump gives his first public reaction to the prospect of Andy Burnham becoming prime minister.
How Brexit broke British politics
Brexit has had a lasting impact on British politics, causing a decade of turmoil and division, and resulting in the resignation of Prime Minister Keir Starmer after two years of economic stagnation and a divided electorate.
What Has Andy Burnham, Britain's Likely Next Prime Minister, Said About Trump?
If Burnham’s planned leadership bid remains unchallenged, he could replace Starmer in a matter of weeks and it will likely fall on him to heal the rift between Washington and Westminster.
How the world views Keir Starmer’s resignation
With the prospect of seven prime ministers in the last 10 years, No. 10 Downing Street is seen as a revolving door and Britain as having ‘profound’ problems
The fall of Britain’s prime minister is a warning for America
Keir Starmer’s resignation shows how moderation can go wrong.
How a new White House proposal could fundamentally change American science
Join us for a discussion on the potential impacts of a Trump admin plan to overhaul how federal research grants are awarded and administered.
Vape shops in Scotland to be excluded from business rates relief
Scottish ministers also announced an independent review of how the property tax is calculated.
Kenya’s health minister orders suspension of construction on a US-backed Ebola facility
Locals have held a series of protests in which three people have died.
Kenya’s health minister orders suspension of construction on a US-backed Ebola facility
Kenyan Health Minister Aden Duale has ordered the suspension of the construction of an Ebola quarantine center for Americans after he was held in contempt by a court that had halted the project.
Kenya's health minister orders suspension of construction on a US-backed Ebola facility
Kenyan Health Minister Aden Duale has ordered the suspension of the construction of an Ebola quarantine center for Americans after he was held in contempt by a court that had halted the project.
Andy Burnham to get briefings on taking over as prime minister
Sir Keir Starmer is offering "access talks" with the civil service to Labour leadership candidates.
Andy Burnham prepares for a UK Labour leadership contest that may be a coronation
Andy Burnham is preparing for a Labour Party leadership contest that could make him Britain's prime minister within weeks.
How Brexit broke British politics
Brexit fractured the European Union, and it broke British politics. The country is about to get its seventh prime minister since the 2016 vote to leave the EU. Labour Prime
How Brexit broke British politics
Brexit fractured the European Union, and it broke British politics. The country is about to get its seventh prime minister since the 2016 vote to leave the EU. Labour Prime
Ever since Brexit, British politics has been an unruly mess
Brexit fractured the European Union, and it broke British politics. The country is about to get its seventh prime minister since the 2016 vote to leave the EU.
Britain left the EU 10 years ago. Its politics has been an unruly mess ever since
LONDON (AP) — Brexit fractured the European Union, and broke British politics. The U.K. is about to get its seventh prime minister since June 23, 2016, a decade ago Tuesday, when the country voted …
Why the forces that felled Keir Starmer threaten so many western leaders
British Prime Minister Keir Starmer was felled by a curse haunting most western leaders — a failure to deliver change to voters who’ve lost trust in the capacity of modern politics to make their lives better and more affordable.
Kenya's health minister found in contempt of court over U.S.-backed Ebola facility
Kenya’s Health Minister Aden Duale was found in contempt of court on Monday for failing to halt the construction of an Ebola quarantine facility intended for Americans, despite existing court orders.
Romania’s Political Turmoil Deepens After PM Hopeful Loses Vote
Romania’s prime minister nominee failed to win parliamentary approval for his proposed cabinet, prolonging a political deadlock that risks stalling key reforms for crucial European Union recovery funding.
Keir Starmer has quit as prime minister – what will happen next in UK politics?
Britain will soon have its fifth prime minister in four years. The Guardian explains how we got here and what challenges await Starmer’s successor
The Torture Chamber of British Politics Crushes Its Latest Prime Minister
Keir Starmer becomes the sixth Prime Minister over the past decade to resign, surrendering to the U.K.’s manifold problems.
Starmer says he'll resign as UK prime minister, roiling British politics yet again
British Prime Minister Keir Starmer said Monday he will resign, forced out by his own party after missteps and mistakes soured voters’ goodwill following a landslide election victory two years ago on a promise of steady leadership and economic growth.
Kenya's health minister found in contempt of court over U.S.-backed Ebola facility
The High Court ordered Duale to appear on Tuesday for sentencing. Earlier this month, the minister defended the project, arguing that the facility at the Laikipia Air Base would benefit both Kenyans and international partners.
Starmer says he’ll resign as UK prime minister, roiling British politics yet again
LONDON (AP) — British Prime Minister Keir Starmer said Monday he will resign, forced out by his own party after missteps and mistakes soured voters’ goodwill following a landslide election victory …
Starmer says he'll resign as UK prime minister, roiling British politics yet again
Starmer says he will remain caretaker prime minister until his Labour Party chooses a new leader — with expectations growing that it will be former Greater Manchester Mayor Andy Burnham.
Starmer says he'll resign as UK prime minister, roiling British politics yet again
British Prime Minister Keir Starmer has announced his resignation, forced out by his party after losing voter support. He will remain as caretaker until Labour chooses a new leader. Former
Starmer is stepping down. What could happen next?
The Labour leader says he will remain prime minister until his successor is chosen.
Starmer announces he'll resign as U.K. prime minister
Burnham's recent victory in a special parliamentary election prompted Starmer's decision
Political turmoil: UK will see its seventh prime minister in 10 years
After less than two years as PM, Keir Starmer announces his resignation amid mounting pressure from own Labour Party.
Keir Starmer says he will resign as prime minister; Andy Burnham expected to be next U.K. leader
Monday’s announcement may clear the path to power for Andy Burnham, who had planned to bring a challenge against Starmer. The next prime minister will be the seventh in just 10 years.
UK politics live: Starmer expected to announce he will resign as prime minister
Live coverage.
Top government figures expect Starmer to announce resignation plans
The prime minister has been considering his political future after Andy Burnham's big by-election victory last week.
Pound Trades Near 2026 Low as UK Political Uncertainty Builds
The pound traded near this year’s low on expectations Keir Starmer will set out a timetable for his departure as UK prime minister in coming days.
'Don't count on me to say bad words' - Live Updates
France's sports minister on Kylian Mbappé's political views, what scares her about snow and why she's not apologizing for PSG.
Starmer is on the precipice as pressure builds for the U.K. leader to resign
Rival Andy Burnham's decisive win in a special election to the House of Commons puts him in position to challenge the prime minister.
India’s ‘Cockroach’ movement camps out until education minister resigns
The viral 'Cockroach' movement's supporters occupy New Delhi's protest site, refusing to leave until minister resigns.
Poland PM Tusk says political row with Ukraine is a 'strategic mistake'
A conflict between politicians in Poland and Ukraine is a strategic mistake that will harm both sides, Polish Prime Minister Donald Tusk said on Sunday on X, as he sought to defuse a row sparked by a historical dispute.
Sen. Cory Booker says people should be ‘very worried’ about Trump and Israel upending peace in the Middle East
The New Jersey Democrat criticized President Donald Trump and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, calling them both “criminal” leaders.
Trump says UK Prime Minister Keir Starmer to resign: 'Failed'
President Donald Trump said that British Prime Minister Keir Starmer will step down in a Truth Social post.
Pressure mounts on Starmer to quit after Burnham’s by-election win
UK minister says Starmer considering 'political realities' after rival Andy Burnham secured decisive by-election win.
UK minister says PM Starmer is considering 'political realities' amid leadership pressure
The threat to Starmer's position increased sharply on Friday when former Greater Manchester Mayor Andy Burnham won a seat in parliament.
The Political Education of Mark Carney
On the world stage, Canada's prime minister is a statesman. In Ottawa, he is a ward boss.
Starmer reflecting on political reality as he considers future, says ally
Cabinet minister Peter Kyle says the PM is "mindful of the interests of the country" amid calls for him to quit.
UK business minister says he has no reason to think PM Starmer will resign on Monday
British business minister Peter Kyle said on Sunday he has no reason to believe that Prime Minister Keir Starmer is planning to announce his resignation on Monday.
UK business minister says he has no reason to think PM Starmer will resign on Monday
LONDON, June 21 (Reuters) - British business minister Peter Kyle said on Sunday he has no reason to believe that Prime Minister Keir Starmer is planning to announce his resignation on Monday.
UK Business Minister Says He Has No Reason to Think PM Starmer Will Resign on Monday
LONDON, June 21 (Reuters) - British business minister Peter Kyle said on Sunday he has no reason to believe that Prime Minister Keir Starmer is planning to announce his resignation on Monday. Speaking to Sky News, Kyle said he had a "frank" conversation with Starmer on Friday. Britain's ...
Sunday with Laura Kuenssberg: Starmer faces pressure as business secretary to be quizzed
Labour MPs and cabinet ministers have been urging the PM to set out a timetable for his resignation following Andy Burnham's big win in Makerfield.
Trump deepens the dustup with Italy's Meloni, who says his 'unprovoked attacks are senseless'
President Donald Trump on Saturday lashed out at Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni, insisting that she asked “over and over” for a photo with him at the recent Group of Seven summit and criticizing what he said was Italy’s lack of cooperation during the Iran war.
Trump deepens the dustup with Italy's Meloni over a disputed photo from the G7 summit
President Donald Trump is lashing out at Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni once more
Italy’s prime minister says Trump made up a story about her supposedly begging him for something. She wouldn’t be the first
After an Italian media outlet reported that President Donald Trump said Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni had “begged” him for a photo at the G7 summit this week, Meloni quickly posted a response on social media. Trump, she said, had “completely fabricated” the story, and she was “shocked.”
A growing number of foreign leaders have had it with Trump
Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni could have denied Trump’s claim that she begged him to take a photo together, and left it at that.
PM under pressure from Labour MPs and ministers to set timetable for exit
The BBC has been told that the transport secretary is among those advising Starmer to set out a timetable.
Italy's Meloni pushes back on Trump's 'fabricated' claim as top diplomat cancels U.S. trip
ROME (AP) — The Italian government closed ranks on Friday to slam U.S. President Donald Trump over his claim that Premier Giorgia Meloni had “begged” for a photo with him during the recent G7 summit, a pushback that suggested the longtime U.S. ally had had enough of Trump’s boasting. Italian Foreign Minister Antonio Tajani abruptly cancelled a planned trip to the United States this weekend, calling Trump’s claims “serious and offensive” toward Meloni and all
Italian foreign minister cancels trip to US over Trump’s comments about Meloni
US President Donald Trump’s comments to an Italian media outlet about the country’s Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni have sparked a fresh diplomatic incident.
Who is Gadi Eisenkot, the Israeli politician who could dethrone Netanyahu?
The former IDF chief of staff whose son was killed in the Gaza war is rapidly climbing in polls and betting markets, emerging as a leading contender to become Israel’s next prime minister.
Starmer’s future hangs in balance after Burnham’s Makerfield election win
Ashton-in-Makerfield, a town few knew of until recently, has potentially chosen the UK's next prime minister.
Britain Politics
Britain's Prime Minister Keir Starmer, right, gestures as he speaks with local residents as he visits a housing development in north London, Friday, June 19, 2026. (Peter Macdiarmid/Pool Photo via
Labour's Andy Burnham wins a special election, setting up a showdown with Starmer to lead Britain
Labour's Andy Burnham, the current mayor of Greater Manchester, has won a special election for a seat in Parliament that puts him in a position to challenge embattled Prime Minister Keir Starmer for leadership of the country.
U.K. Election Results Live Updates: Burnham Wins Makerfield By-Election, Clearing Path to Challenge Starmer
Andy Burnham, the Labour Party’s most popular politician, earned a decisive victory for a parliamentary seat in northern England. The win energizes his bid to become prime minister.
Why China Insists on the “Existing International Order”: The Politics of UN Centrality and Reform
In May 2026, China held the rotating presidency of the UN Security Council, and Foreign Minister Wang Yi flew […]
Video: A Small Election Could Change British Politics
Voters in the northern English district of Makerfield cast ballots on Thursday to choose their representative in Parliament, the outcome of which could lead to Prime Minister Keir Starmer’s ouster.
Wadephul: Germany has an 'enduring responsibility' to Poland
In an interview with DW, German Foreign Minister Johann Wadephul discussed Germany's cooperation with Poland and the importance of supporting Ukraine in its war with Russia.
Germany's foreign minister: 'European unity is decisive'
German Foreign Minister Johann Wadephul, in an interview with DW, underscores the trans-Atlantic partnership, close cooperation with Poland, continued support for Ukraine and European unity.
The European Council’s new political arithmetic
Four freshly installed prime ministers are joining the EU leaders’ table.
Starmer warns against ‘looking backwards’ to Brexit after rivals back UK’s return to EU
Speaking at the G7 summit, prime minister says he stands by Labour’s manifesto pledge not to rejoin bloc
‘Unbelievable’ waste and inefficiency at MoD, says ex-defence minister Al Carns
Exclusive: Carns, who quit last week, says he was angered by unwillingness to confront sunk costs of legacy programmes
Health Science Institute hosts disaster drill on USI campus
First responders pulled out stretchers, performed triage, and administered aid on the students, who were acting in a disaster scenario.
Saudi Arabia sports minister vows affordable and safe World Cup in 2034
Saudi Arabia's Sports Minister says the kingdom will work with FIFA to ensure ticket affordability and fan safety for the 2034 World Cup, amid regional instability and lessons from this year's finals in North America where costs have been a concern.
Robert De Niro's message for Donald Trump on his 80th birthday: 'Shut the f--- up'
As the president was hanging with UFC fighters at the White House on his 80th birthday, Robert De Niro delivered a fiery anti-Trump speech, declaring that he wants to "love my country again."
Keir Starmer set to announce under-16s social media ban
Prime minister expected to unveil ‘Australia plus’ ban for under-16s on apps such as TikTok, Instagram and Snapchat
Trump Claims Strait Will be ‘Permanently Toll Free’ Under Agreement With Iran
In a call to The New York Times, President Trump praised Russia and China’s leaders and described Israel’s prime minister as “a very difficult guy.”
Justin Trudeau skipped Canada World Cup opener because girlfriend Katy Perry performed at US game
Former Canada Prime Minister Justin Trudeau attended the United States’ World Cup opener against Paraguay rather than his own nation’s game vs | KCBS All News 106.9FM and 740AM
Justin Trudeau skipped Canada World Cup opener because girlfriend Katy Perry performed at US game
Former Canada Prime Minister Justin Trudeau attended the United States’ World Cup opener against Paraguay rather than his own nation’s game vs. Bosnia-Herzegovina in Toronto. Trudeau said he made the
Can This Man Govern Britain? (Can Anyone?)
Andy Burnham is using an American playbook to become prime minister. It could be the center-left's last chance.
Romania's president nominates Adrian Vestea as prime minister after his previous pick withdraws
Romanian President Nicusor Dan has nominated Adrian Vestea as prime minister to resolve a political crisis.
UK forces board sanctioned Russian oil tanker in English Channel for the first time, says Keir Starmer
Prime minister says British armed forces intercepted a Russian shadow fleet vessel in the early hours of Sunday morning
In Retrospect: Poland, Russia, Europe
In April I spent a few days with Zryw, a Polish non-profit organization that recruits young people to enter politics and public life. Their aim is to build a new generation of civic leaders in Poland. I’ve followed their evolution from the beginning; my son is one of the founders. (“Zryw” means “impulse” or “burst of speed” in Polish). Julie Chmielewska, one of Zryw’s leaders, interviewed me at the event. Here is the conversation, lightly edited for grammar and context: Julia Chmielewska: Assuming that culture shapes institutions, could we conclude that some cultures are more prone to authoritarianism? Anne Applebaum: I don’t think so. Every culture, every nation, and every country has the potential for change. When we look at history, we can see that nations do change. Poland has changed, for example, from the 1980s to today. There’s a completely different mentality here than the one I encountered when I first visited, in 1988. The current generation sees the world through a different frame. So no, I don’t believe that certain nations are doomed to authoritarianism, or to anything. Of course, there are political and cultural traditions, but they can always be challenged. JC: So do you think there’s something intrinsic in human nature that pushes people to democracy, freedom? AA: I think there is something in human nature, a deep instinct, that pushes people towards freedom, yes. People who live in authoritarian countries – and I’ve heard this from them over and over again – sooner or later find themselves angered by a feeling of helplessness. They can see the unfairness of crooked courts, irrational political decisions. They naturally dislike the fact that somebody has all the power while they have none. In those circumstances, people who have no political background at all sometimes are politicized just by that frustration. I’m thinking of Svetlana Tikhanovskaya, for example, who was a Belarusian housewife, until the circumstances of her husband’s arrest forced her to become a politician. I met a woman who is a Uyghur from China, and who had come to live in Turkey. After several of her family members were arrested, she too was propelled into a political role. These kinds of experiences make people interested in democracy or political reform, even if they thought they didn’t care. I also think that the opposite is true: some people instinctively prefer homogeneity, order, hierarchy. They don’t like the confrontation of opinions or the noise of debate, and they lean towards a single leader or a unified regime. I think that most of modern history is shaped by the clash between those two different sides of human nature. JC: Which force do you find more powerful today? AA: I think they both have a lot of power and there’s no way of predicting who wins. Even in countries that seem very shut off or stuck in an authoritarian system can change. We’ve seen that happen. And vice versa, I think democracies can also begin to fail and slide into authoritarianism. So it’s very important not to be complacent in either direction. JC: I want to go into your history and your experiences. You’ve lived in Russia during a time of incredible change in the late 80s, and then you came back to do research in post-Soviet Russia. AA: I was a student in Russia just before the collapse of the Soviet Union. I then traveled and worked there extensively in the 1990s, and I met people who really were full of hope. They hoped that Russia could become a democracy, or at least a place that guaranteed freedom of speech, freedom of the press. These weren’t ideas that came from Washington. Although now the narrative in the Kremlin is different, I met many people who were working towards exactly that kind of transformation. A friend of mine ran a series of seminars – once a year, and then later several times a year, in cities all over Russia – designed to get people to discuss politics in new ways. She invited young politicians and journalists, as well as foreigners. I went to many of them, in Moscow as well as Volgograd and Novosibirsk. Over two decades, hundreds of people came to these seminars, and all of them wanted Russia to be different. I remain convinced that many Russians still want Russia to be different. It’s just that the old system, in the form of Putin, a representative of that system, returned. The KGB reimposed their power. And this wasn’t because of something to do with culture, this was to do with money and politics, and who was in charge. JC: You’ve partially answered my question... I wanted to ask whether that excitement of the 1990s was an exception from the Russian historical norm which has been rather authoritarian? AA: Of course, if you look at the history of Russia since the 18th century, there have always been liberal groups, reformers and revolutionaries. There were the Decembrists, in the early 19th century, and the rural populists later on, who tried to organize the peasantry. A significant group of liberal Russians appeared at the turn of the 20th century, people like the father of the writer Vladimir Nabokov, who was a Russian politician before the revolution. These groups were small in number, but sometimes had a broader significance. The Russian dissident movement in the 1950s and 1960s actually invented the modern human rights movement. It was their idea to hold the leaders of the Soviet Union accountable for the language they used, to remind them of the treaties they had signed and the promised they had made. They created the Helsinki group, for example, that held Soviet leadership to the language of the Helsinki Treaty, which formally ended the Second World War and which contained guarantees of human rights, at least on paper. That idea spread to Eastern Europe, and similar tactics were used here in Poland. (Benjamin Nathans recently wrote a great book about the Soviet dissidents, To the Success of Our Hopeless Cause) JC: But seemingly, even if they do ever get power, they could never hold on to it. AA: We don’t know, because they have never really had power. But in any case, we also don’t know what will happen in the future. There is no reason to assume that Russia will forever be condemned to totalitarianism. Even during the first fifteen years of Putin’s regime there was some form of democratic politics. Only when the full-scale war began did he bring everything to an end: he shut down all remaining independent organizations and killed his most important opponent, Alexi Navalny. But does that mean he is popular, that he enjoys legitimacy? Even now, we don’t really know what Russians think about him, or about the war. There is no way of doing real polling in Russia because nobody will answer an independent pollster over the phone. JC: Do you think that the flock of young people, especially young men, who fled Russia after the start of the war represent a continuation of liberal movements that refuse to partake in the authoritarian state, or do you think they are moving for the sake of self-preservation – “I don’t want to go to the army, so I leave”? AA: I’m sure it’s both. I actually know many people who left Russia for political reasons either in the very last years before the war, or else just after the war began. JC: And do you see a change in the young generation versus the old one that have fled? AA: It’s hard for me to say because the people who I know were mostly already politicized. I do know some younger people who left, but most of them were already either active in the opposition, or working as journalists. Many of them very self-consciously think of themselves as maintaining Russian culture abroad, just as in the 20th century the Soviet dissidents or the anti-communist White Russians once thought of themselves as people who maintained the true Russian culture, outside of Bolshevik Russia. JC: Let’s move on to Poland. One of your first experiences with Poland was reporting on Margaret Thatcher’s first state visit, in the autumn of 1988. You followed her around the farmers’ market. AA: She was making a symbolic gesture. She wanted to welcome free markets, but the only one she could really visit was the farmers’ market at Hala Mirowska. JC: And I want to talk about this area because today you can look out of any window in that district, Mirów, and see rows and rows of skyscrapers. How does it feel to see a country built from the ground in such a short time, both politically and economically? AA: You know, when you’re living in a period of dramatic change, it’s always hard to know whether the change is positive or negative. The transformation in Poland created winners and losers, as well as new classes of people, new political movements of different kinds. At the time, it sometimes just felt like turbulence. Now, we can look back at the 1990s and early 2000s in Poland and see in retrospect that the country was headed in towards prosperity and European integration. In around 2009 or 2010, I remember speaking to a woman who worked cleaning government offices, and who asked me if her daughter should study in Amsterdam or in London. This seemed to me to be a real transformation, and it happened very fast: within a few years, Poles stopped feeling like second-class Europeans, and a generation of younger Poles appeared who had no qualms about crossing borders. JC: We again live in turbulent times. Do you think we’re heading towards positive outcomes? AA: I can’t make predictions, because everything that happens tomorrow depends on what people do today. Also, history doesn’t have a trajectory. It doesn’t move in a particular direction. You only think it does afterwards. As I said, you can look afterwards at Poland in the 1990s and you could say this was a period of great progress. But not everybody at the time saw that. Sometimes people are very wrong about a given country’s trajectory. I remember people writing about Ukraine in the 1990s, about how dangerous it was that Ukraine was independent, that this was going to be an anti-semitic state, that Ukrainian nationalism was going to come back... and although you can say many bad things about Ukraine, the country made many bad choices, actually it became a pretty tolerant state which now has a Jewish president and until recently a Muslim defense minister. JC: In the 1990s Poland’s and Ukraine’s GDP were roughly similar. Ukraine was even a bit richer. So the starting point was similar for both of these countries, but they’ve turned out very, very differently. Even if we stop in 2014. Why do you think Ukraine “chose East”? Was it external influence? AA: No, I think Ukraine was in a different position. First of all, central and eastern Ukraine had been part of the Soviet Union since the 1920s, and had therefore experienced a longer period of occupation, repression, Sovietization and even Russification. Ukraine did not have, as Poland did, an alternative elite: a large cadre of economists and politicians, who already had some experience in opposition politics and in independent thinking. In Poland, the transformative finance minister, Leszek Balcerowicz, had already thought about how an economy might be decentralized before he took office. We can argue about how successful he was, but at least he was prepared to try something new. In Ukraine, people weren’t prepared. For one, there hadn’t been much space even for an illegal opposition in the previous couple of decades. Ukraine was also in many ways still emerging from colonial occupation. For the previous couple of centuries, many of the most capable Ukrainians had moved to Russia, and the first generation of leaders in independent Ukraine tended to be former Soviet apparatchiks. They didn’t immediately seek to become closer to western Europe. Instead, they looked for some kind of economic and political “third way” and an accomodation with Russia. Ukraine became stuck in this position, half-in, half-out and became pretty profoundly corrupt. JC: The Polish alternative elite had a vision of where they wanted the country to go. I think the general perception now is that this vision ends with the next election, right? Is this a natural process of gaining power? AA: Their vision, and it was shared by the time by politicians who now call themselves both left and right, was that Poland should join the EU and NATO, as fast as possible. My husband (Radek Sikorski) was in the very first government that said it wanted to join NATO. At the time this was taken very badly in Washington: the demand for NATO membership absolutely came from Poland, not from the US. But even then, in the early 1990s, many Poles already understood that the Russian sphere of influence would grow once again, that it was important to become part of the transatlantic alliance and an integrated Europe as fast as possible: NATO, the EU, the Council of Europe, all of the trading and security alliances. That consensus lasted through several different governments and over many years, even governments containing former communists. For twenty years, right, left and center disagreed about many things, but they all agreed on the direction that the country should go. In retrospect, that consensus created the basis for prosperity in Poland. JC: And regarding the Polish-Ukrainian relations. We know that antagonisms, e.g. the myth of Wołyń [a massacre of Poles that took place in what is now Western Ukraine, in 1943] are increasingly used in Polish political discourse today. In Ukraine, nationalist historians make heroes out of UPA, the Ukrainian revolutionary army, which is held responsible for this tragedy. Where do you see a start for burying the hatchet? Is the reconciliation of our nations possible? AA: So here’s a strange thing: For more than a decade after they both gained independence, Poland and Ukraine participated in a number of projects that were designed to solve exactly these kinds of Polish-Ukrainian differences. Books were published that were jointly written by Polish and Ukrainian historians, monuments were built. These projects were successful: If you’d asked me this question in 2010, I would have said that there are no real historical issues between Poland and Ukraine, that the two countries had mostly reconciled. For a number of reasons, this began to shift. In Poland, children and grandchildren of victims of the Wołyń massacre felt their tragedy hadn’t been fully recognized. In Ukraine, nationalist groups wanted the UPA partisans who had fought against the Soviet Union recognized for their heroism, despite the fact that some in this broad and not well-defined group were also linked to Wołyń. In both eastern Poland and western Ukraine, the memory of the ethnic cleansing that took place there in the late 1940s - Poles were moved West, Ukrainians East - to accomodate new borders has left feelings of displacement and bitterness. The wave of Ukrainian immigration, which started before the war, may have provoked some of this. But don’t underestimate the role played by Russia, which has always wanted to create discord between Poland and Ukraine, and pumps out propaganda to that effect in both countries. Vandalism on both sides of the border, damage done to cemeteries and monuments, is sometimes carried out by provacateurs working for Russia, just to create bad feelings. The Polish-Ukrainian conflict also hides a different reality: although there are real grievances and bad memories, the truth is that the biggest tragedies both nations experienced in the twentieth century were inflicted by the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. That should unite these two countries, not divide them. JC: This week (19.04.2026 – Ed.) in Hungary we saw that using historical narratives to create grievance has no longer worked. Are you optimistic about the direction after Orban’s loss? AA: The Hungarian election was really important because it shows that people can actually resist powerful, dominant propaganda. The ruling party Fidesz controlled all of the TV, 90% of the newspapers, the constitutional court, the bureaucracy... and yet people had the nerve to vote against it and resist it. It’s also an important election because Hungary created a huge network of well-funded think tanks and foundations that were funding other far right groups and projects. So that loss is going to have a knock-on effect in other places too, maybe even in Poland. JC: What you’ve said about resisting propaganda reminds me of one of the interviews you did about talking to Russians in the post-Soviet era who claimed that people knew that the system was lying. Why do people choose to believe in these regimes anyway? AA: Because it’s useful. Stephen Kotkin, an American historian, once described how people would learn how to “speak Bolshevik”: It was just a language that you needed to use in order to get by in society. If you didn’t talk the way the regime wanted you to talk, then you might have problems, or lose your job, or your kids would not get into university. It was a way of getting along. Communist Poland was similar, at least in the early years. When I was writing a book about the Sovietization of Eastern Europe after World War II, I met a lot of people who wanted to talk a lot about the war, when many of them had done really heroic things. But almost nobody wanted to talk about the decade afterwards, between 1945 and 1956. This was when you had the short period of terror, violence and Polish Stalinism. To stay safe, people felt the need to just go along with what others were saying, or stay out of politics, or use communist jargon without necessarily believing it. I don’t judge them for it, and I wouldn’t describe all of those people as collaborators. It’s easy to feel moral certainty in retrospect, because we know that communism ended. But if you were living in 1949, it might not have been clear to you that communism was going to end. In very repressive societies, maybe about 10% of people who are really evil – collaborators, torturers. Maybe 10% of people are really brave and who find ways to resist. And then around 80% of people have kids, they have parents, they have to have jobs and they’ve had to get through it somehow. Strange though it may sound, I’ve found that the work I did on that book is now very useful in explaining some of what’s going on in the United States today. There are plenty of members of the Republican Party in Congress who know perfectly well that Donald Trump says many things that aren’t true. But they avoid criticizing him because it’s inconvenient, because they would get in trouble, because someone would attack them on the internet. So actually you don’t even need mass terror to get people to conform. JC: Is Gen Z reinventing agency? AA: We’ll see. In any generation you can find groups of people who want agency. If you live in a society that’s unfair, for example where a tiny number of people have captured most of the wealth, then at a certain point people rebel. This is always easier for younger people, who have you have less to lose. The question now is how the internet will affect the relationships between citizens and the state, and how it will change organizations. The “Twitter revolutions” people spoke about as early as 2008-9, mass protests organized online, have often proved to be very superficial. Although you can easily join something just by clicking, the work of creating a real movement requires physical participation. Successful mass movements of the past, for example the Civil Rights movement in the United States, were built by people who had spent many years together. They had participated in non-violent workshops together. They practiced and prepared. Just using the you can get everybody to show up at a certain moment, but then when the protest is broken up, nothing happens. It’s also true that the repressive regimes have more recently learned how to use the internet to undermine leaders and movements. Most of all, they now understand how to make people cynical. The form of propaganda that most modern authoritarians use - and I think the Russians really pioneered this - deploys sneering cynicism. Instead of praising the rulers, the regime propagandists mock the opposition movement leadership for being supposedly corrupt or sexually degenerate, with the goal of undermining any kind of idealism. JC: MAGA grew on the internet? AA: MAGA is a real grassroots movement. They had symbols, red hats, they showed up at rallies. But you’re right that the cynicism, the sarcasm and the distrust that the movement embodies came originally from the internet, and this is different. Fifty years ago, most European political parties had a social base in real organizations, in trade unions for Social Democrats, in church groups for Christian Democrats. As people stopped going to church and as the trade unions became smaller, the social base of these parties disappeared. Now people who wouldn’t have known one another in the past meet on the internet and create new movements, many of which don’t last. JC: Is history ending? Going in stale circles? AA: History never ends. In truth, human beings want contradictory things at the same time: order and freedom, stability and change. These things are never resolved, and when a society swings too far in one direction, people always push it the other way. But each time that happens, the result is different. Certainly it is true that we are now in a period when old philosophers and ideas from the 1930s are undergoing a revival. Carl Schmitt, who was a philosopher who was very influential on the Nazis, is back as an influence on both the far left and the far right, once again inspiring people to think that all politics has to be existential, that all politics is about defining and defeating enemies. In the US, some are also bringing back dominionism, the idea that we need a Christian and not a secular state. It’s also true that we are living through a more fundamental shift. The old left-right divide, which was mostly about the size of the state, is much less important now. Instead, we are arguing about more fundamental things: what are our rights, what protects our freedom. Or how much power do we want to give small elites, versus how much power to give ordinary people. In America a small group of very wealthy people now control information, because they control the social media platforms and AI, which means they determine what people will read and learn. Finding a way to preserve preserve zones of autonomy and independent thinking, this is going to be the main task for the next generation. JC: What is the one book that a person interested in Central Europe should read? AA: You could read my book “Iron Curtain: the Crushing of Eastern Europe” which tells the story of how the Soviet Union imposed its culture on the region. Or read Tim Snyder’s history of the region, “The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus 1569-1999.” And everyone should read “The Captive Mind” by Czesław Miłosz, which describes exactly the phenomenon we were talking about: why do people collaborate? I joined Scott Galloway and the brilliant Fiona Hill in a discussion about the wars in Ukraine and Iran, the future of global power, and what these conflicts reveal about America's role in the world. Scott told us that this was the 400th edition of his podcast, which is quite a number: My friend Francesco Chiamulera runs a brilliant series of literary events, Una Colline di Libri, A Hill of Books, in the Prosecco Hills, a region of vineyards and elegant hill towns in the Veneto, north of Venice. We did an event in Vittorio Veneto and also drove and biked around the countryside. Buy Autocracy Inc Buy Iron Curtain Open Letters, from Anne Applebaum is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support my work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber. Subscribe
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