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Truth and Politics in the Age of Post-Truth
Get E-International Relations delivered to your inbox, free of charge. As you sign up, consider becoming a paid subscriber, or make a donation, to support our work. Subscribe This is an excerpt from Global Politics in a Post-Truth Era. You can download the book free of charge from E-International Relations. The term post-truth is by now so ubiquitous in describing the state of politics in the Western world and even beyond that the most pressing issue of the day appears to be about making democracy work in the era of post-truth rather than questioning the normalisation of the term itself in the first place. The critical turning point appeared to have occurred in 2016 when the term was chosen by the Oxford English Dictionary as ‘The Word of the Year.’ On its website, the Dictionary notes the transformation of post-truth from ‘being a peripheral term to being a mainstay in political commentary and connects ‘the spike in frequency’ directly with the Brexit referendum in the United Kingdom and the election of Donald J. Trump in the United States – both occurring in 2016. Paired with the noun ‘politics,’ post-truth is defined as an adjective ‘relating to or denoting circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief.’ The Oxford English Dictionary traces the first use of the term to a 1992 essay in The Nation by the playwright Steve Tesich as he reflected on the 1980s Iran-Contra scandal and the 1990–91 Gulf War: We are rapidly becoming prototypes of a people that totalitarian monsters could only drool about in their dreams. All the dictators up to now have had to work hard at suppressing the truth. We, by our actions, are saying that this is no longer necessary, that we have acquired a spiritual mechanism that can denude truth of any significance. In a very fundamental way we, as a free people, have freely decided that we want to live in some post-truth world (Tesich 1992, 13; emphasis added). He then continued, The Gulf War is over but the war at home goes on. The gulf between rich and destitute widens – between those of us who live in a modern post-industrial nation and those of us who live in the Third World countries of our inner cities. The present administration’s response to this internal crisis has shifted from benign to malignant neglect. The current levels of misery and decomposition of our cities and the economic gulags of our ghettos are acceptable. Since there is only so much hope to go around, there is a freeze on hope. The have-nots have now been reclassified as never-will-haves (Tesich 1992, 13). In the context of Tesich’s essay, truth includes both facts, as in what happens, and ‘moral absolutes,’ as in the ‘self-evident truths mentioned in our Constitution’ (Tesich 1992, 14). Together, these two notions of truth entail the obligation to both act and react. The two passages cited above show that even in the early post-Cold War years, Tesich was already deeply concerned that the American people are neither prepared to act on truth nor react to truth that is disconcerting, or what he calls ‘bad news’ (Tesich 1992, 12). Accordingly, Tesich’s insight as captured by the term post-truth is not that truth is irrelevant to what we know, but rather it is irrelevant to how we act. In contrast, ‘post-truth politics,’ as defined by Oxford as a term that pitches ‘objective facts’ against ‘emotion and personal belief’ such that the latter appears to have overtaken the former in shaping ‘public opinion’ and thereby, democratic politics. When Tesich’s post-truth politics and its current usage are juxtaposed, the two are in fact not identical in terms of what truth is and how it relates to politics. Against such consideration, this chapter provides a critical survey of selected historical events and theoretical considerations for the purpose of gaining a more nuanced understanding of the relation between truth and politics. Truth and Language One notable impact of post-truth politics is that language is being overtly deployed as a political weapon not only by politicians and those in power, but among the general population. It seems that once facts are irrelevant to the validity of what is being said, language becomes the platform for an all-out political contest in which what is said is no more than an act of will expressed as an assertion of power and/or an exercise in defiance. As early as in the writings of Thucydides (460–400 BCE), the vulnerability of logos – which is the human capacity for rational discourse in tumultuous times – was already noted. Thucydides belonged to a school of Greek thought which maintained that language is conventional and that the association between name and things is a result of ‘human use and habit’ rather than ‘nature or divine dispensation’ (Connor 1984, 99). The conventional nature of language means that it is incapable of providing its users with any independent criteria for judgement. In Thucydides’ study of the Peloponnesian War (431–405 BCE), the subversion of logos as seen in the manipulation of language was introduced through his account of the civil war in Corcyra (Thucydides 1972, 236-245). The war first broke out in 427 BCE between the pro-Athenian democratic faction and the pro-Spartan oligarchic faction before it spread to the rest of the Greek world. There was a general breakdown of law and order, resulting in extreme violence and death. Language underwent changes that were reflective of the events of the time. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) translated Thucydides’ description of the situation as follows: The received value of names imposed for signification of things, was changed into arbitrary. For inconsiderate boldness, was counted true-hearted manliness: provident deliberation, a handsome fear: modesty, the cloak of cowardice: to be wise in everything, to be lazy in everything... he that had been so provident as not to need to do the one or the other, was said to be a dissolver of society, and one that stood in fear of his adversary. In brief, he that could outstrip another in the doing of an evil act, or that could persuade another thereto that never meant it, was commended (Hobbes 1839–1845, 8: 348; Thucydides 1972, 242-243). What concerned Thucydides most was that the meanings of words are no more than linguistic conventions that require logos to support them. The Corcyrean civil war was a reminder that such capacity cannot be assumed. This is why history understood as an authentic account of what happens matters. Guided by logos, the historian’s task is ‘the search after truth’, which is established through ‘the absence of the fabulous,’ including ‘the rejection of myth and unverifiable stories’ (de Jonge 2017, 2). Thus, history plays an important role in facilitating the stability of language – without which distinctions and judgements cannot be rendered communicable. Just like Thucydides, Hobbes was a nominalist who subscribed to the view that there is no inherent meaning to words. Hobbes’ state of nature, where there is no common authority, is precisely one in which distinctions cannot be made. As Hobbes put it, there is ‘no Mine and Thine distinct’ nor is there distinction between ‘the notions of Right and Wrong, Justice and Injustice’ (1968, 188; emphasis in original). This is clearly an unsustainable condition for everyone. Behind Hobbes’ famous words that life in the state of nature is ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short’ is his uncompromising argument for the ‘Leviathan’, which is described by the late American political theorist, Sheldon Wolin (1922–2015), as the ‘sovereign definer’ (Hobbes 1968, 186; Wolin 2004, 238–243). Accordingly, the social contract is importantly a ‘linguistic contract’ that binds all parties to ‘general names agreed upon’ (Peters 1979, 125; Hobbes 1968, 111). Through Thucydides and Hobbes, we can identify a line of thinking that sees politics as a contestation over the use of language, which is based on shared conventions and norms. Thus understood, politics is not a collective quest for the true nature of our being or an epistemological exercise in pursuit of true knowledge. Rather, politics is about humans living with one another by finding a shared language to communicate with one another on matters that affect them all. Truth is in that sense contingent on what is being said as opposed to setting the standard for it. In other words, truth is the embodiment of shareability among us. While truth as such ensures the viability of a political entity, truth by no means represents a normative standard to adjudicate among contesting actors in what they say, let alone in what they do. During Thucydides’ times, ancient China was also experiencing a tumultuous time as the ruling Zhou dynasty deteriorated into the period of the Warring States (481–221 BCE). This was when the rulers of Zhou no longer presided over the territories brought under its control through conquest. Instead of professing allegiance to the Zhou royalty, the lords of these territories became kings themselves to rule over their own land. The period was one marked by endless military campaigns as each of the seven major states aimed to conquer the rest (Lewis 1999). Yet, the period was also known for its intellectual vibrancy as different thinkers challenged the restoring of order among these warring states – including offering ideas and advice to rulers on good governance. Among these thinkers was Confucius (551–479 BCE). His thought, which came to be known as Confucianism, went on to become the state ideology of China from the Han dynasty (206 BCE–222 CE) until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1911 when China became a republic. The founding text of Confucianism was the Analects, which is a collection of dialogues between Confucius and his students as recorded by them. One key concept Confucius advanced is the ‘rectification of names’. Though the term only appears in one exchange in the Analects, it is considered a major aspect of Confucius’ thought. Generations of Confucian scholars from past and present, including Western academics, have debated over its interpretation (Makeham 2003). The passage in question reads as follows: Zi Lu said: ‘The monarch of the state of Wei wants you to govern the country, what is the first thing you plan on doing?’ Confucius said: ‘First it is necessary to rectify the names.’Zi Lu said: ‘Is that really what has to be done? You are being too pedantic, aren’t you now? How will you rectify these names?’Confucius said: ‘Zhong You, you are too unrefined. A gentleman, faced with a matter that he does not understand, takes a skeptical attitude. If names are not correct, one cannot speak smoothly and reasonably, and if one cannot speak smoothly and reasonably, affairs cannot be managed successfully. If affairs cannot be managed successfully, rites and music will not be conducted. If rites and music are not conducted, punishments will not be suitable. And if punishments are not suitable, the common people will not know what to do. So, when the gentleman uses names, it is necessary to be able to speak so that people understand. If one can say it, one can definitely do it. A gentleman should not be careless with words’ (Analects 13:3 in Cao 2016, 148). This translation is offered by the contemporary philosopher Cao Feng. As Cao notes, the passage is what started the whole debate over ‘exactly what kind of names did Confucius... wish to rectify’ (Cao 2016, 148). Of the three major groups of interpretation examined by Cao, beginning with classical Confucian scholarship, one is arguably the most influential and certainly most pertinent to the issue of language and politics. This is the interpretation that was first associated with the Neo-Confucian master, Zhu Xi (1130–1200), who argued that the ‘rectification of names is simply the rectification of politics’ (Cao 2016, 149). Within this interpretive framework, rectification has the dual functions of correction and prescription by ensuring that predetermined hierarchical roles are strictly adhered to through following ‘the system of rites and propriety’ (Cao 2016, 151). In addition, the rectification of names entails ‘using names to rectify actuality’ (Cao 2016, 151). Yet Cao rejects this whole body of interpretive works by arguing that these were ideas developed later. Instead, Cao suggests the following: The original meaning of Confucius’ rectification of names may, then, be quite simple. Confucius did not mean to establish a concrete, normative system of “names”; rather, Confucius was simply the first person in history to realize or remark upon the importance of language in politics. As a politician, he noticed and foresaw the impact that the indeterminacy, ambiguity, and arbitrariness of names would have on politics. Confucius recognized the political consequences of language’s not accurately expressing meaning or not being accurately received by people. He realized the great role that names, as a means of distinguishing right and wrong and establishing norms, could play in society and politics (Cao 2016, 168). Scholarly debates aside, Cao’s view has the advantage of identifying an interpretation of this controversial exchange in the Analects that enables its readers to extrapolate from it the observation that the meaning of words depends as much on their users as on their interpreters; neither of which can be predetermined. Accordingly, a good ruler is someone who can speak without ambiguity to his subjects and make good his words through actions. Stated differently, Cao’s view on what concerned Confucius then, who was living through times of protracted political upheaval, is that language is an indispensable political tool for those in power and can be deployed by both good and bad rulers alike. To sum up, this historical survey shows that politics as a war of words is by no means a distinctive marker of contemporary politics nor the Western world. Be it ancient or current, east or west, language is subject to manipulation to serve political purposes and when there is an outright war of words that defies existing norms, it is indicative of a political situation in which people no longer share a language and truth becomes irrelevant. Accordingly, political order entails stability in language use. Truth and Politics As previously noted, current use of the term post-truth as an adjective to the term ‘politics’ suggests that once there was a time when politics aligned with truth. Indeed, if we start with Plato’s Republic as the key founding text of Western political thought, we see that the ideal polis (city-state of ancient Greece) is where truth and politics converge, and justice is achieved. Written around 380 BCE when Athens was still coping with its defeat by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian War, the Republic is a defence of the rule of the ‘philosopher king’, defined as someone who is ‘guided by the truth’ and is ‘always and in every way’ in pursuit of the truth (Plato 1974, 490a). For Plato, truth converges with virtues and hence, letting the philosopher take charge of politics is to let the wisest and the most virtuous lead the less wise and the less virtuous even if it requires compulsion (Plato 1974, 499b). In Plato’s words, ‘…until the philosophers attain power in a city there will be no respite from evil for either city or citizens…’ (Plato 1974, 501e). The uncompromising rule of philosopher-kings is made palatable by the claim that we are all ‘earth- born brothers’ with random mixtures of gold, silver, bronze and iron, but only the gold can rule (Plato 1974, 414–415). Understandably, academic debates over the interpretation of Plato’s Republic revolve around the question of whether truth as attained in philosophy can be realised in politics as action and whether such a connection is even desirable. Without getting into the details of these scholarly exchanges, I suggest that they all share the concern that truth acquired through the rigorous process of philosophical reasoning is not without problem when applied to the real world of living humans. This is because not all humans are philosophers – and indeed, in Plato’s view, not everyone is capable of becoming a philosopher given the protracted and arduous training that one needs to endure to become one. Hannah Arendt (1906–1975), a highly influential political philosopher of the twentieth century, notes that ‘Plato was the first to introduce the division between those who know and do not act and those who act and do not know’ and that such a separation has remained ‘at the root of all theories of domination’ (Arendt 1958, 223, 225). What Arendt points out in this remark is not the gap between theory and practice, but rather that Plato provides the normative ground for those who know the truth to tell those who do not know what to do. Arendt herself took on the challenge of understanding the relationship between truth and politics through her analysis of Nazism and Stalinism. Arendt’s insight, which was controversial when The Origins of Totalitarianism was published in 1951, was to identify Nazism and Stalinism as representative of a new form of political rule – totalitarianism – making it distinct from ‘other forms of political oppression... such as despotism, tyranny and dictatorship’ (Arendt 1973, 460). Arendt defines totalitarianism as a self- contained system of ideas driven by their ‘logic’ and marked by a mode of reasoning called ‘ideological thinking.’ Ideological thinking as such is a distinctive form of political reasoning defined by three characteristics. First, ideological thinking claims to provide a ‘total explanation’ of all historical happenings, encompassing the past, the present, and the future. Second, while ideological thinking is an attempt to account for ‘factual reality’ in its totality, this mode of thinking is paradoxically divorced from reality and experience. This is because experience, being rooted in specificity, is clearly limited in its claim to totality. It follows that as its third characteristic, ideological thinking aims to emancipate thought from the limitation imposed by experience through a ‘specific method of demonstration.’ The method involves arranging facts into an ‘absolutely logical procedure’ that starts from an ‘axiomatically accepted premise’. It is, in short, a ‘process of deduction from a premise’ – which is the only possible movement in the realm of logic that leads to one definitive conclusion. This is how the ‘logicality of ideological thinking’ provides the basis for total explanation and the ‘principle of action’ for totalitarian movement (Arendt 1973, 468–474). Stated differently, totalitarianism is a form of uncompromising idealism that exists in one’s head irrespective of shared reality as experienced. It is the perverse form of what Arendt later refers to as ‘rational truth’, which is the product of the ‘speculative mind’ that belongs to philosophy, mathematics and the sciences. The ‘speculative mind’ is the mind working on its way to generate axioms and theories by relying on the cognitive capacity of the human brain (Arendt 1977, 231). The presence of others has no bearing whatsoever on rational truth. In contrast, ‘factual truth’ is what happens when humans are ‘living and acting together’ (Arendt 1977, 231). Factual truth is therefore particular and temporal by definition. But more importantly, factual truth is ‘political by nature’ because it can only be validated in the context of the human community (Arendt 1977, 238). In other words, factual truth is about humans in their plurality rather than in their singularity. For factual truth to be sustainable, we need what Arendt calls ‘common sense’ – understood as ‘community sense’ (Arendt 1982, 72). There is also another distinction about truth that Arendt makes which is pertinent to understanding how totalitarianism works. The issue is whether the so-called totalitarian ideology is simply an unnecessarily cumbersome way of saying that it is an all-round and polished lie. Here, Arendt calls totalitarian ideology the ‘modern lie’ – in contrast to the ‘traditional lie’. The latter is restricted by two conditions: that it is a lie about the ‘particulars’ and that it deceives only the ‘enemy’ – which means that the liar is not engaged in self- deception. The modern lie, however, involves a ‘complete rearrangement of the whole factual texture’. It also intends to deceive everyone alike, to the extent that those who initiate the lie eventually ‘fall victims to their own falsehood’ (Arendt 1977, 249–254). This distinction between the traditional and modern lie is important. It indicates that not only is totalitarianism a lie, but the lie is in fact too big to fit into the standard meaning of the word. To tell a lie from truth, we need a common standard. In the case of a traditional lie, the common standard is precisely ‘the fabric of factuality’. As such, a lie always appears as a ‘tear’ to that fabric. Yet, modern lies require making a surrogate reality with a completely different context for facts to fit ‘without seam, crack, or fissure, exactly as the facts fitted into their original context’. Arendt notes that as long as those who concoct the surrogate reality are prepared to engage in self- deception to ‘create a semblance of truthfulness’, there is nothing to prevent ‘these new stories, images, and non-facts from becoming an adequate substitute for reality and factuality’ (Arendt 1977, 253–254). Totalitarianism therefore requires a person to stand outside of the system itself in order to make sense of it. Arendt points out that it is futile for us to argue with (for example) a Nazi or a Stalinist on race or class. To confront totalitarianism requires more than just a confrontation with specific facts. It is a more fundamental confrontation between reality as experienced and its total rejection. This means that Nazism and Stalinism are more than radical ways of conducting racial conflict or class struggle. Rather: Totalitarian politics – far from being simply antisemitic or racist or imperialist or communist – use and abuse their own ideological and political elements until the basis of factual reality, from which the ideologies originally derived their propaganda value– the value of struggle, for instance, or the interest conflicts between Jews and their neighbours – have all but disappeared (Arendt 1973, xv). Accordingly: The ideal subject of totalitarian rule is not the convinced Nazi or the convinced Communist, but people for whom the distinction between fact and fiction (that is, the reality of experience) and the distinction between true and false (that is, the standards of thought) no longer exist (Arendt 1973, 474). Who then is the ‘ideal subject’ of totalitarianism? Although there is a revival of interest in Arendt’s observation on truth and politics since the onset of post- truth politics, not enough has been said about her reply to the question (Hyvönen 2018; Klinkler 2018; Lee 2019; Zerilli 2020). Yet if we take a look at Arendt’s portrait of this ideal subject, her view is even more pertinent to our current challenge. As a self-contained system of ideas that is detached from experience, totalitarian thinking offers consistency in ways that reality cannot. Arendt notes that this kind of consistency is especially appealing to those who have lost a sense of bearing in the world (Arendt 1973, 353). They constitute what she calls the ‘masses’. The ‘mass man’ is thus a highly isolated and atomised individual, who is ‘obsessed by a desire to escape from reality’ (Arendt 1973, 318, 352). In his ‘essential homelessness’ the mass man can ‘no longer bear its accidental, incomprehensible aspects’ (Arendt 1973, 352). This longing for escape from reality is a ‘verdict against the world’ in which one is ‘forced to live’ but ‘cannot exist’ (Arendt 1973, 352). Such a situation is ripe for the ‘revolt of the masses’ against ‘common sense,’ which is ‘the result of their atomisation, of their loss of social status’ and with it, the ‘whole sector of communal relationships in whose framework common sense makes sense’ (Arendt 1973, 352). In short, the masses are people who are considered to be ‘superfluous or can be spared … [who] cannot be integrated into any organisation based on common interest’ (Arendt 1973, 311). Whether one agrees with Arendt’s analysis of the social conditions in the interwar years that led to the formation of the ‘masses’, her portrait of the ‘mass man’ is a powerful account of what can happen to an individual who has become disposable to the society that they used to belong to. Hand in hand with this phenomenon is indeed the collapse of ‘common sense’ that leaves the dislodged individual scrambling for reconnection. By offering the masses a substitute reality validated by the ‘logic of an idea’ rather than by experience, totalitarianism makes it possible for them to live in a world where there is no condition of plurality. Between ‘facing the anarchic growth and total arbitrariness of decay’ and ‘bowing down before the most rigid, fantastically fictitious consistency of an ideology’, the masses will likely ‘choose the latter’ (Arendt 1973, 352). A world created by ideology, then, is more attractive to the masses not because ‘they are stupid and wicked, but because in the general disaster this escape grants them a minimum of self- respect’ by conjuring up ‘a lying world of consistency which is more adequate to the needs of the human mind than reality itself’ (Arendt 1973, 353). Moreover, it is precisely this ability to guarantee consistency that makes it possible for the leaders of totalitarian movements to demand ‘total, unrestricted, unconditional and unalterable loyalty of the individual member’ (Arendt 1973, 323). While this chapter is not a study of the social factors that led to specific contemporary developments such as the result of the Brexit referendum or the election of Donald Trump in 2016, Arendt’s ‘mass man’ seem to have found their counterparts among the supporters of Brexit and Trumpism. Studies of voters’ profiles in both events point to a disproportionate share of supporters from white male lower income backgrounds without university educations. These are individuals who have either already lost their jobs to globalisation or who are at high risk of losing their job with very little capacity to be retrained for the twenty-first century market economy of advanced industrialised states (BBC 2016; Pew Research Center 2018). In short, these displaced workers are part of the tapestry forming the modern equivalent of Arendt’s ‘mass man’ – ready to be the recruits of totalitarianism. Conclusion If we step back to take a more comprehensive approach to the relationship between truth and politics, both historically and theoretically, it is not so obvious that 2016 is a defining moment. From ancient China and ancient Greece to our so-called post-truth age, the indeterminacy of language appears to be a persistent political challenge. Language is always open to manipulation by its users to serve power. Nonetheless, the tendency these days is to single out the ubiquity of social media and the proliferation of Internet platforms as the incubator for the countless cyberwars of words that in turn fuel the real world of politics. In this context, language is no longer the conveyor of objective facts and accurate information, but rather the medium for expressing subjective opinions and feelings, as captured by the Oxford Dictionary’s definition of the term ‘post-truth politics’. In contrast, the historical approach used in this chapter shows that it is in fact too easy to point the figure at the Internet and digital communication for the political challenge that we face today. What is being suggested here is that with or without the Internet, language, be it used to convey facts or emotions, is simply a tool for communication that humans have invented. While language per se cannot adjudicate what is true or not true, what is right or wrong, it embodies such capacity when language is a shared norm. That shared norm cannot be sustained without some semblance of cohesion in any given community. Any war of words, irrespective of its platform, is indicative of the breakdown of such cohesiveness. Returning to the original context in which the term post-truth politics was first used by Steve Tesich helps to identify the important distinction between truth as the standard for knowledge and truth as the standard for action. The two do not necessarily coincide. Placed in the context of the history of political thought, this distinction is in fact at the heart of Plato’s Republic. Yet when the philosopher as the quintessential bearer of truth becomes king, the polis that he rules over is far from the ideal of a just state that it purports to be. Instead, it is one that is held together by lies and coercion. What Arendt reveals through her study of Nazism and Stalinism is that it is dangerous for the kind of truth that philosophy generates – ‘rational truth’ – to become the guide to politics. Politics guided by rational truth can only be uncompromising and follows a logic of its own that cannot afford the ambiguity and indeterminacy of reality as lived experiences of humans. A world of post-truth politics can be an opportunity for a new kind of politics if it is indeed about dismantling the idea that truth is the ideal that politics should strive for. But as it stands, the post-truth politics of today is more about invoking a past that never exists to judge the presence as a crisis in naming when the real crisis is about rebuilding a shared space that has room for all – be they of the left, right or centre; cosmopolitan or parochial; civic-minded or self-centred; liberal-minded or bigoted. Politics is and always will be about striving for that space, without which no human can thrive. References Arendt, Hannah. 1958. The Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Arendt, Hannah. 1973. The Origins of Totalitarianism. Rev. ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Arendt, Hannah. 1977. “Truth and Politics.” In Between Past and Future, 227–264. New York: Penguin Books. Arendt, Hannah. 1982. Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy, edited by Ronald Beiner. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. British Broadcasting Corporation. 2016. “Brexit vote: The breakdown.” BBC News, December 7, 2016. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-38227674 Cao, Feng. 2016. “A New Examination of Confucius’ Rectification of Names.” Journal of Chinese Humanities 2: 147–171. https://doi-org.subzero.lib. uoguelph.ca/ doi/ 10.1163/23521341-12340032. Connor, W. Robert. 1984. Thucydides. Princeton: Princeton University Press. de Jonge, Casper C. 2017. “Dionysius of Halicarnassus on Thucydides.” in The Oxford Handbook of Thucydides, edited by Sara Forsdyke, Edith Foster, and Ryan Balot. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/ oxfordhb/9780199340385.013.17 https://www-oxfordhandbooks-com.subzero. lib.uoguelph.ca/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199340385.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199340385 Hyvönen, Ari-Elmeri. 2018. “Careless Speech: Conceptualizing Post-Truth Politics.” New Perspectives 26 (3): 31–55. https://www.proquest.com/ scholarly-journals/careless-speech-conceptualizing-post-truth/ docview/2204515132/se-2?accountid=11233. Hobbes, Thomas. 1839–1845. The English Works of Thomas Hobbes, edited by Sir William Molesworth. London: John Bohn. Vol. 8. Klinkner, Melanie. 2018. “Reasonable Truth.” International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics 14 (3): 393–99. doi:10.1386/macp.14.3.393_7. Lee, Haiyan. 2019. “When Nothing Is True, Everything Is Possible: On Truth and Power by Way of Socialist Realism.” PMLA/Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 134 (5). Cambridge University Press: 1157–64. https://doi.org/10.1632/pmla.2019.134.5.1157 Lewis, Mark E. 1999. “Warring States Political History.” In The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC, edited by Michael Loewe and Edward Shaughnessy, 587–650. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Makeham, John. 2003. “Zheng ming (Rectification of names).” In RoutledgeCurzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism, edited by Xinzhong Yao. Vol. 2: 813-814. New York: Routledge. Oxford Languages, n. d. “Word of the Year 2016.” Accessed 19 August 2017. https://languages.oup.com/word-of-the-year/2016/ Peters, Richard. 1979. Hobbes. Westport: Greenwood Press. Pew Research Center. 2018. “An examination of the 2016 electorate, based on validated voters.” Report, August 9, 2018. https://www.pewresearch.org/ politics/2018/08/09/an-examination-of-the-2016-electorate-based-on- validated-voters/ Plato. 1974. Republic. Translated by G. M. A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hackett. Tesich, Steve. 1992. “Watergate Syndrome: A Government of Lies.” The Nation: 12-14. January 6/13, 1992. Thucydides. 1972. The Peloponnesian War. Translated by Rex Warner. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. Wolin, Sheldon. 2004. Politics and Vision: Continuity and Innovation in Westen Political Thought. Expanded Edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Zerilli, Linda M. G. 2020. ‘Fact-Checking and Truth-Telling in an Age of Alternative Facts.’ Le foucaldien 6, no. 1: 2, 1–22. Theresa Man Ling Lee is an Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of Guelph (Canada). Lee is a political theorist who specializes in contemporary political thought. Her research and teaching areas include continental philosophy, Marxism and critical theory, feminism, postmodernism, philosophy of social science, psychoanalysis, multiculturalism, human rights, disability studies, modern Chinese political thought and comparative political theory. Lee has published on a wide range of subjects in these areas, including intercultural pedagogy and the challenges of teaching as a person with multiple minority designations in a Canadian university classroom.
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Yankees Manager Aaron Boone announced that right-handed pitcher Clarke Schmidt should be activated tomorrow as expected, reported by Yankees beat writer Gary Phillips of the New York Daily News in a tweet this evening.Schmidt, 30, has been recovering from Tommy John surgery and an “internal brace” that he had in July of 2025, which resulted […] The post Yankees’ Clarke Schmidt Expected To Be Activated Wednesday appeared first on HEAVY.
Eagles Make Head-Scratching Decision Behind Saquon Barkley
All offseason long, the Philadelphia Eagles have generated a ton of hype for their second-string running back, Tank Bigsby. Although Saquon Barkley is the clear-cut No. 1 back on the depth chart, the expectation was that Bigsby would get some more work this season, which would help Barkley save some miles. After seeing Week 1 […] The post Eagles Make Head-Scratching Decision Behind Saquon Barkley appeared first on HEAVY.
76ers' 4 High-Usage Stars Create Unique Dilemma
With so many players needing the ball, Philadelphia could have a rough start to the season.
'Hunger Games' director addresses not casting Philip Seymour Hoffman’s son in 'Sunrise on the Reaping'
What climate change politics can teach us about the AI apocalypse debate: Philip Bump
Philip Bump argues that the politics around AI risk, China and corporate power carry familiar echoes from the climate change fight.
Philly band the War on Drugs is back with new music
PHILADELPHIA — The War on Drugs have returned. The Philadelphia band fronted by songwriter Adam Granduciel has released its first new music in five years. The band’s new single, “Who’s
Philly band the War on Drugs is back with new music
PHILADELPHIA — The War on Drugs have returned. The Philadelphia band fronted by songwriter Adam Granduciel has released its first new music in five years. The band’s new single, “Who’s
FOCUS Names Mark Phillips Senior Vice President of Business Development
FOCUS, the AI-enabled operations partner that has built and run the operations behind property and casualty carriers and MGAs for more than 25 years, today announced that Mark Phillips has joined the company as Senior Vice President of Business Development. Phillips will lead the FOCUS sales organization as the company expands its Launch, Grow, and Scale services and its new strategic partnerships, including its new listing in the Accelerant Marketplace.
Geno Smith Bluntly Bashes Titans Defense
Despite heavy off-season investment, Tennessee’s pass rush failed to pressure the veteran quarterback, leaving the defense reeling as they prepare for a formidable Philadelphia offensive line.
AI apocalypse debate echoes climate politics: Philip Bump
Philip Bump argues that the politics around AI risk, China and corporate power carry familiar echoes from the climate change fight.
Briere says Michkov has ‘different swagger' heading into Flyers training camp
Danny Briere discussed Matvei Michkov and other topics in his pre-training camp press conference.
Health department reports 2 more measles-related deaths in Pa.
The Department of Health reported two more measles-related deaths in Pennsylvania, bringing the total number to four so far in 2026.
Will Titans Linebacker Cedric Gray Return in Week 2?
After a frightening UTV accident sidelined Tennessee’s tackling machine, Robert Saleh expects the linebacker to clear protocol in time for a high-stakes clash against the Philadelphia Eagles.
Eagles Coach Unleashes Truth On Makai Lemon’s Debut vs Commanders
Despite missing Makai Lemon for a chunk of training camp, the Philadelphia Eagles didn’t hesitate to start the rookie in Sunday’s Week 1 action against the Washington Commanders. Lemon was the third wide receiver alongside DeVonta Smith and Dontayion Wicks, and the Eagles attempted to draw up some plays to get him going early. Unfortunately, […] The post Eagles Coach Unleashes Truth On Makai Lemon’s Debut vs Commanders appeared first on HEAVY.
Phillies have major offensive problem that could ruin postseason chances
This big offensive problem could ruin the Phillies' playoff hopes.
Commanders Make 2-Point Conversion Decision Clear After Eagles Game
The Philadelphia Eagles came away with a 24-22 win over the Washington Commanders on Sunday in Philadelphia, a good win against a division opponent.
Inside a Philadelphia barbershop, Black men debate their political past and future
Political strategist Khalil Thompson is on a mission to understand why some Black men leaned Republican in recent elections.
Providence to receive $1.1B from Nike co-founder to build women’s health hospital in Oregon
Providence will receive $1.1 billion from Nike co-founder Phil Knight and his wife, Penny — one of the largest gifts ever pledged to a U.S. healthcare institution — to build Oregon's first women's hospital and expand cardiovascular services. The funds, directed to Portland's Providence St. Vincent Medical Center and Providence Heart Institute, build on the Knights' prior $200 million gift to the heart institute.
Providence announces $1.1 billion pledge from Phil and Penny Knight
The donation will fund a new women’s hospital and cardiovascular care. It's part of the Knights' history of funding health research and hospitals in Oregon, including $200 million in previous gifts to Providence's Heart Institute and a recent $2 billion pledge to OHSU.
College cancels early screening of 'Bucks County, USA' docuseries
Bucks County Community College officials announced the cancellation of the pre-release screening which had been scheduled for Tuesday, Sept. 15.
'Fast Break Philly' serves up a space for girls to enjoy sports
At "Fast Break Philly," Philadelphia girls can find a safe space to enjoy sports at a common skill level.
'Fast Break Philly' serves up a space for girls to enjoy sports
At "Fast Break Philly," Philadelphia girls can find a safe space to enjoy sports at a common skill level.
'Fast Break Philly' serves up a space for girls to enjoy sports
At "Fast Break Philly," Philadelphia girls can find a safe space to enjoy sports at a common skill level.
'Fast Break Philly' serves up a space for girls to enjoy sports
At "Fast Break Philly," Philadelphia girls can find a safe space to enjoy sports at a common skill level.
How Philly-area businesses use employee bonuses to reward performance
Companies like Chickie's and Pete's and Werner Bus Lines use extra pay to incentivize employees to help the business do well, Gene Marks writes.
September 15 Playbook: Mail Voting Returns to Status Quo
✌️ It’s Tuesday. 49 days until the midterms 🎶 Your Morning Pick Me Up. Birthday. The Beatles PA Weather☀️ Blairsville | Sunny, 80🌤️ Mansfield | Mostly Sunny, 69☀️ Palmyra | Sunny, 77 PA Sports ⚾ Phillies (83-67, +1.5 GB WC) | Atlanta 9-4 | Tue at Washington⚾ Pirates (75-75) | Chicago…
AROUND THE LAKES: Geneva Concerts unveils 2026-27 schedule
GENEVA — Geneva Concerts is celebrating 80 years in the community with its 2026-27 season lineup offering performances by Garth Fagan Dance, the Syracuse Orchestra, and the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra
Phillies news: Kyle Schwarber, postseason, Vladimir Guerrero, Jr.
This is going to be a fun finish to the season, huh?
Philippe Coutinho joins Santos until the end of the season
Philippe Coutinho has changed clubs in Brazil after joining Santos until the end of the season.The former Liverpool and Aston Villa man returned to his home country in 2024 when he joined Vasco da Ga...
Seeing red in Manchester derby
In the Manchester derby there were two huge calls and, again, VAR somehow managed to get both wrong. Well, the first was at the very least morally wrong as opposed to totally wrong by the letter of the law. Bruno Fernandes sneakily kicked Phil Foden while the Manchester City man was defenceless on the ground.
Who Should Replace Landon Dickerson on Eagles O-Line?
After a dreadful Week 1 performance against Washington, the Philadelphia Eagles announced guard Landon Dickerson will be placed on Injured Reserve
Eagles’ Offensive Line Gets Concerning Stats Exposed After Commanders Game
After a shaky showing from the Philadelphia Eagles‘ offensive line during the 2025 NFL season, their first leg of a bounce-back campaign in 2026 was far from promising. As the Eagles rolled out a new offense under the first-year offensive coordinator Sean Mannion, the line was by far the most glaring weakness on the day […] The post Eagles’ Offensive Line Gets Concerning Stats Exposed After Commanders Game appeared first on HEAVY.
Giants waive wide receiver, add running back to practice squad
Dalen Cambre is out; running back Phil Mafah added to practice squad.
Cooper DeJean reacts to disappointing performance despite Eagles win
Cooper DeJean addressed his struggles following Philadelphia's narrow Week 1 win.
Could Jaylen Brown Become a Distraction for 76ers?
Everyone knows Jaylen Brown will speak his mind. Now, it seems it could be a problem throughout the season.
Philadelphia Union's Cavan Sullivan named Player of the Matchday
By Cal MeachemPlayer of the Matchday 26: Cavan SullivanFor the first time in his budding young career, 16-year-old Philadelphia Union midfielder Cavan Sullivan has been named MLS Player of the Matchda...
NFL Kickoff posts worst viewership since 2022
The NFL’s 2026 Wednesday opener ended up being a bit of a disappointment, both in terms of quality of play and viewership. Wednesday’s New England Patriots-Seattle Seahawks opener averaged 25.1 million viewers on NBC and Peacock. That is the worst audience for an opener since 2022 and down 12% from the Dallas Cowboys-Philadelphia Eagles game…
Jalen Hurts narrates Ryan Clark’s next chapter after ESPN departure
Jalen Hurts and Odell Beckham Jr. helped narrate Ryan Clark’s announcement launching The Pivot Sports following his ESPN departure
Watch Nick Sirianni press conference after Week 1 win vs. Commanders
Watch Sirianni’s press conference live at 3:00 p.m.
Why Joel Embiid’s health could be another distraction for Philadelphia
Commanders Starter Called ‘Unplayable’ After Loss to Eagles
Washington Commanders starter called "unplayable" after loss to Philadelphia Eagles in Week 1. The post Commanders Starter Called ‘Unplayable’ After Loss to Eagles appeared first on HEAVY.
Meet the new Philadelphia Eagles cheerleaders balancing careers in healthcare
The Philadelphia Eagles' cheerleading squad has nine new members, including a Jefferson Health cardiac ICU nurse and three other healthcare professionals.
Foden needs to be more composed
Manchester City captain Ruben Dias say Phil Foden needed to be "more controlled and composed" when provoked by Bruno Fernandes in Sunday's Manchester derby. Foden was sent off for violent conduct after kicking out at Fernandes on the floor after being fouled and kicked himself by the Manchester United skipper. "In the moment I felt it was a bit harsh because my perception was Bruno kicks Phil and then he has a rushed reaction and maybe kicks him back," Dias said.
AL executive reveals why Phillies are serious World Series contenders
This executive has a strong belief in the Phillies for five key reasons.
Phillies Announce Starting Pitchers for Quick Series vs Nationals
The Philadelphia Phillies have announced the starting pitchers for their series with the Washington Nationals.
Philadelphia faces calls for a data center moratorium amid spreading AI fear and talk of a slowdown
The activation in Philadelphia comes as leaders of the nation’s largest AI developers have signaled support for a global slowdown.
Braves cut ties with 10.38 ERA former Phillies starting pitcher
This is an interesting, though unsurprising, move by the Braves.
Eagles News: Jalen Hurts starts the season strong
Philadelphia Eagles news and links for 9/14/26.
Atlanta Braves News: Atlanta loses Series Finale to Phillies, Robert Suarez Update, More
Braves win big series over Phillies.
September 14 Playbook: The Races Defining the Midterms
☀️ Good Monday Morning. LFG 🎶 Your Morning Pick Me Up. Wake Me Up. Avicii PA Weather☀️ Ridgway | Mostly Sunny, 67🌤️ Lebanon | Becoming Sunny, 74☀️ Doylestown | Sunny, 73 PA Sports ⚾ Phillies (83-67, +1.5 GB WC) | Atlanta 9-4 | Tue at Washington⚾ Pirates (75-75) | Chicago Cubs…
2026 Philosophy, Politics, and Economics Lecture Speaker: Dr. Tanya Golash-Boza
Austin College will host Dr. Tanya Golash-Boza as the 2026 Philosophy, Politics, and Economics (PPE) Lecture Speaker.
Four Biggest Takeaways From Commanders 24-22 Loss to Eagles
The Washington Commanders came within two points of knocking off the Philadelphia Eagles, but missed opportunities ultimately cost them to open the 2026 regular season. Four takeaways from the week one loss.
Rajarshi Krishna Muppaneni: A Journey of Building Intelligent Business Solutions
AUSTIN, TX / ACCESS Newswire / September 14, 2026 / Every successful digital transformation begins with a simple objective: helping people solve business problems more effectively. Throughout his career, has embraced that philosophy by designing technology solutions that simplify complexity, strengthen collaboration, and create lasting business value.
New Carlo Rovelli book challenges science's understanding of reality and the universe
In his latest book, the world-renowned physicist draws on science and philosophy to explore the notion that the university and reality are fully knowable.
New Carlo Rovelli book challenges science's understanding of reality and the universe
In his latest book, the world-renowned physicist draws on science and philosophy to explore the notion that the university and reality are fully knowable.
New Carlo Rovelli book challenges science's understanding of reality and the universe
In his latest book, the world-renowned physicist draws on science and philosophy to explore the notion that the university and reality are fully knowable.
Prolonged sitting is linked to an array of adverse health effects, even for people who are physically active
A growing body of research shows that extended periods of sitting increase risk of cancer and other diseases.
Why Phil Foden’s Man City season could be doomed already
Foden’s sending off at Old Trafford is likely to mean he misses up to a month of playing time with a three-game suspension and the international break on the horizon
Phil Washington’s prescient perspectives on public transit
Phil Washington departed Denver 11 years ago, leaving his job as the Regional Transportation District’s general manager for the previous six years and another decade before that as its chief financial officer. I happened to be at the RTD offices when Washington’s departure was announced. There were small groups of employees huddled in the hallways, […]
Eagles grades by position after tight win over Commanders
Here are our Eagles grades by position after the 24-22 win over the Commanders on Sunday afternoon.
Eagles Become Only Team in NFL to Accomplish Major Statistic
The Philadelphia Eagles became the only team in the league to earn an elite statistic with their win over the Washington Commanders.
Eagles vs. Commanders: The good, the bad, and the ugly
Highlights and lowlights from Philadelphia’s Week 1 win.
Eagles cornerback Riq Woolen dominates coverage in Week 1 victory
Riq Woolen saw four targets but allowed no catches or yards over 37 coverage snaps in his first start for the Philadelphia Eagles
2026 Philosophy, Politics, and Economics Lecture Speaker: Dr. Tanya Golash-Boza
Austin College will host Dr. Tanya Golash-Boza as the 2026 Philosophy, Politics, and Economics (PPE) Lecture Speaker.
Roob's Observations as Eagles hang on for Week 1 win over Commanders
The Eagles opened their 2026 NFL season with a 24-22 win over the Commanders at Lincoln Financial Field.
SeaWolves drop regular season finale at Reading
Reading Fightin Phils 17, Erie SeaWolves 7
Eagles Shake Up Depth Chart With QB Decision
The Philadelphia Eagles shook up their depth chart with QB decision before Sunday's opener. The post Eagles Shake Up Depth Chart With QB Decision appeared first on HEAVY.
Eagles vs. Commanders, Week 1 Live Updates: Washington strikes first
The Philadelphia Eagles open their 2026 NFL season vs. the Washington Commanders in Week 1 on Sunday at Lincoln Financial Field.
ETSU to name College of Arts and Sciences after $15 million gift
JOHNSON CITY, Tenn. (WJHL) – East Tennessee State University announced a new name for its College of Arts and Sciences on Friday. The Phil and Martha Bachman College of Arts and Sciences, the…
We believed we could win even with 10 men
Enzo Maresca says he told his players they could still win the Manchester derby even after going down to 10 men against United.Phil Foden was dismissed after 23 minutes at Old Trafford following an al...
Inside a Philadelphia barbershop, Black men debate their political past and future
Although Black men vote overwhelmingly Democratic, even small shifts in their support can help swing razor-thin elections. They are often some of the most scrutinized but least understood voters, a blind spot that political strategist Khalil Thompson wants to fix.
Eagles vs. Commanders Week 1: Scores, updates, and discussion
Week 1 of the 2026 NFL season is finally here and it’s time for the Eagles to take the field in Philly.
Foden dismissed in derby - but did he deserve it?
After Phil Foden is sent off in Sunday's Manchester derby, pundits give their reaction. What do you think?
Inside a Philadelphia barbershop, Black men debate their political past and future
PHILADELPHIA — Ever since Democrat Kamala Harris lost the presidential election to Donald Trump two years ago, political strategist Khalil Thompson has been traveling the country to figure out why Black men inched toward a white Republican rather than a Black woman. Although Black men vote overwhelmingly Democratic, even small
Eagles face a healthier, more commanding Jayden Daniels in opener
Jayden Daniels enters Week 1 healthy and with more control of Washington’s offense, creating several problems for the Eagles’ defense
Inside a Philadelphia barbershop, Black men debate their political past and future
PHILADELPHIA (AP) — Ever since Democrat Kamala Harris lost the presidential election to Donald Trump two years ago, political strategist Khalil Thompson has been traveling the country to figure out why Black men inched toward a white Republican rather than a Black woman.
Inside a Philadelphia barbershop, Black men debate their political past and future
PHILADELPHIA (AP) — Ever since Democrat Kamala Harris lost the presidential election to Donald Trump two years ago, political strategist Khalil Thompson has
Inside a Philadelphia barbershop, Black men debate their political past and future
Political strategist Khalil Thompson is on a mission to understand why some Black men leaned Republican in recent elections | 1080 WTIC NEWSTALK
Inside a Philadelphia barbershop, Black men debate their political past and future
Political strategist Khalil Thompson is on a mission to understand why some Black men leaned Republican in recent elections. His organization, Win With Black Men, aims to address this by
Inside a Philadelphia barbershop, Black men debate their political past and future
Political strategist Khalil Thompson is on a mission to understand why some Black men leaned Republican in recent elections | K-DAWN
Inside a Philadelphia barbershop, Black men debate their political past and future
Political strategist Khalil Thompson is on a mission to understand why some Black men leaned Republican in recent elections.
Inside a Philadelphia barbershop, Black men debate their political past and future
Political strategist Khalil Thompson is on a mission to understand why some Black men leaned Republican in recent elections.
'60s Singer Petula Clark Is Nearly A Centenarian: What She Looks Like Now
Singer Petula Clark, who rose to fame in the '50s and was huge in the '60s, is now in her 90s, and her beauty philosophy has impacted how she looks.