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Truth and Politics in the Age of Post-Truth
Get E-International Relations delivered to your inbox, free of charge. As you sign up, consider becoming a paid subscriber, or make a donation, to support our work. Subscribe This is an excerpt from Global Politics in a Post-Truth Era. You can download the book free of charge from E-International Relations. The term post-truth is by now so ubiquitous in describing the state of politics in the Western world and even beyond that the most pressing issue of the day appears to be about making democracy work in the era of post-truth rather than questioning the normalisation of the term itself in the first place. The critical turning point appeared to have occurred in 2016 when the term was chosen by the Oxford English Dictionary as ‘The Word of the Year.’ On its website, the Dictionary notes the transformation of post-truth from ‘being a peripheral term to being a mainstay in political commentary and connects ‘the spike in frequency’ directly with the Brexit referendum in the United Kingdom and the election of Donald J. Trump in the United States – both occurring in 2016. Paired with the noun ‘politics,’ post-truth is defined as an adjective ‘relating to or denoting circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief.’ The Oxford English Dictionary traces the first use of the term to a 1992 essay in The Nation by the playwright Steve Tesich as he reflected on the 1980s Iran-Contra scandal and the 1990–91 Gulf War: We are rapidly becoming prototypes of a people that totalitarian monsters could only drool about in their dreams. All the dictators up to now have had to work hard at suppressing the truth. We, by our actions, are saying that this is no longer necessary, that we have acquired a spiritual mechanism that can denude truth of any significance. In a very fundamental way we, as a free people, have freely decided that we want to live in some post-truth world (Tesich 1992, 13; emphasis added). He then continued, The Gulf War is over but the war at home goes on. The gulf between rich and destitute widens – between those of us who live in a modern post-industrial nation and those of us who live in the Third World countries of our inner cities. The present administration’s response to this internal crisis has shifted from benign to malignant neglect. The current levels of misery and decomposition of our cities and the economic gulags of our ghettos are acceptable. Since there is only so much hope to go around, there is a freeze on hope. The have-nots have now been reclassified as never-will-haves (Tesich 1992, 13). In the context of Tesich’s essay, truth includes both facts, as in what happens, and ‘moral absolutes,’ as in the ‘self-evident truths mentioned in our Constitution’ (Tesich 1992, 14). Together, these two notions of truth entail the obligation to both act and react. The two passages cited above show that even in the early post-Cold War years, Tesich was already deeply concerned that the American people are neither prepared to act on truth nor react to truth that is disconcerting, or what he calls ‘bad news’ (Tesich 1992, 12). Accordingly, Tesich’s insight as captured by the term post-truth is not that truth is irrelevant to what we know, but rather it is irrelevant to how we act. In contrast, ‘post-truth politics,’ as defined by Oxford as a term that pitches ‘objective facts’ against ‘emotion and personal belief’ such that the latter appears to have overtaken the former in shaping ‘public opinion’ and thereby, democratic politics. When Tesich’s post-truth politics and its current usage are juxtaposed, the two are in fact not identical in terms of what truth is and how it relates to politics. Against such consideration, this chapter provides a critical survey of selected historical events and theoretical considerations for the purpose of gaining a more nuanced understanding of the relation between truth and politics. Truth and Language One notable impact of post-truth politics is that language is being overtly deployed as a political weapon not only by politicians and those in power, but among the general population. It seems that once facts are irrelevant to the validity of what is being said, language becomes the platform for an all-out political contest in which what is said is no more than an act of will expressed as an assertion of power and/or an exercise in defiance. As early as in the writings of Thucydides (460–400 BCE), the vulnerability of logos – which is the human capacity for rational discourse in tumultuous times – was already noted. Thucydides belonged to a school of Greek thought which maintained that language is conventional and that the association between name and things is a result of ‘human use and habit’ rather than ‘nature or divine dispensation’ (Connor 1984, 99). The conventional nature of language means that it is incapable of providing its users with any independent criteria for judgement. In Thucydides’ study of the Peloponnesian War (431–405 BCE), the subversion of logos as seen in the manipulation of language was introduced through his account of the civil war in Corcyra (Thucydides 1972, 236-245). The war first broke out in 427 BCE between the pro-Athenian democratic faction and the pro-Spartan oligarchic faction before it spread to the rest of the Greek world. There was a general breakdown of law and order, resulting in extreme violence and death. Language underwent changes that were reflective of the events of the time. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) translated Thucydides’ description of the situation as follows: The received value of names imposed for signification of things, was changed into arbitrary. For inconsiderate boldness, was counted true-hearted manliness: provident deliberation, a handsome fear: modesty, the cloak of cowardice: to be wise in everything, to be lazy in everything... he that had been so provident as not to need to do the one or the other, was said to be a dissolver of society, and one that stood in fear of his adversary. In brief, he that could outstrip another in the doing of an evil act, or that could persuade another thereto that never meant it, was commended (Hobbes 1839–1845, 8: 348; Thucydides 1972, 242-243). What concerned Thucydides most was that the meanings of words are no more than linguistic conventions that require logos to support them. The Corcyrean civil war was a reminder that such capacity cannot be assumed. This is why history understood as an authentic account of what happens matters. Guided by logos, the historian’s task is ‘the search after truth’, which is established through ‘the absence of the fabulous,’ including ‘the rejection of myth and unverifiable stories’ (de Jonge 2017, 2). Thus, history plays an important role in facilitating the stability of language – without which distinctions and judgements cannot be rendered communicable. Just like Thucydides, Hobbes was a nominalist who subscribed to the view that there is no inherent meaning to words. Hobbes’ state of nature, where there is no common authority, is precisely one in which distinctions cannot be made. As Hobbes put it, there is ‘no Mine and Thine distinct’ nor is there distinction between ‘the notions of Right and Wrong, Justice and Injustice’ (1968, 188; emphasis in original). This is clearly an unsustainable condition for everyone. Behind Hobbes’ famous words that life in the state of nature is ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short’ is his uncompromising argument for the ‘Leviathan’, which is described by the late American political theorist, Sheldon Wolin (1922–2015), as the ‘sovereign definer’ (Hobbes 1968, 186; Wolin 2004, 238–243). Accordingly, the social contract is importantly a ‘linguistic contract’ that binds all parties to ‘general names agreed upon’ (Peters 1979, 125; Hobbes 1968, 111). Through Thucydides and Hobbes, we can identify a line of thinking that sees politics as a contestation over the use of language, which is based on shared conventions and norms. Thus understood, politics is not a collective quest for the true nature of our being or an epistemological exercise in pursuit of true knowledge. Rather, politics is about humans living with one another by finding a shared language to communicate with one another on matters that affect them all. Truth is in that sense contingent on what is being said as opposed to setting the standard for it. In other words, truth is the embodiment of shareability among us. While truth as such ensures the viability of a political entity, truth by no means represents a normative standard to adjudicate among contesting actors in what they say, let alone in what they do. During Thucydides’ times, ancient China was also experiencing a tumultuous time as the ruling Zhou dynasty deteriorated into the period of the Warring States (481–221 BCE). This was when the rulers of Zhou no longer presided over the territories brought under its control through conquest. Instead of professing allegiance to the Zhou royalty, the lords of these territories became kings themselves to rule over their own land. The period was one marked by endless military campaigns as each of the seven major states aimed to conquer the rest (Lewis 1999). Yet, the period was also known for its intellectual vibrancy as different thinkers challenged the restoring of order among these warring states – including offering ideas and advice to rulers on good governance. Among these thinkers was Confucius (551–479 BCE). His thought, which came to be known as Confucianism, went on to become the state ideology of China from the Han dynasty (206 BCE–222 CE) until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1911 when China became a republic. The founding text of Confucianism was the Analects, which is a collection of dialogues between Confucius and his students as recorded by them. One key concept Confucius advanced is the ‘rectification of names’. Though the term only appears in one exchange in the Analects, it is considered a major aspect of Confucius’ thought. Generations of Confucian scholars from past and present, including Western academics, have debated over its interpretation (Makeham 2003). The passage in question reads as follows: Zi Lu said: ‘The monarch of the state of Wei wants you to govern the country, what is the first thing you plan on doing?’ Confucius said: ‘First it is necessary to rectify the names.’Zi Lu said: ‘Is that really what has to be done? You are being too pedantic, aren’t you now? How will you rectify these names?’Confucius said: ‘Zhong You, you are too unrefined. A gentleman, faced with a matter that he does not understand, takes a skeptical attitude. If names are not correct, one cannot speak smoothly and reasonably, and if one cannot speak smoothly and reasonably, affairs cannot be managed successfully. If affairs cannot be managed successfully, rites and music will not be conducted. If rites and music are not conducted, punishments will not be suitable. And if punishments are not suitable, the common people will not know what to do. So, when the gentleman uses names, it is necessary to be able to speak so that people understand. If one can say it, one can definitely do it. A gentleman should not be careless with words’ (Analects 13:3 in Cao 2016, 148). This translation is offered by the contemporary philosopher Cao Feng. As Cao notes, the passage is what started the whole debate over ‘exactly what kind of names did Confucius... wish to rectify’ (Cao 2016, 148). Of the three major groups of interpretation examined by Cao, beginning with classical Confucian scholarship, one is arguably the most influential and certainly most pertinent to the issue of language and politics. This is the interpretation that was first associated with the Neo-Confucian master, Zhu Xi (1130–1200), who argued that the ‘rectification of names is simply the rectification of politics’ (Cao 2016, 149). Within this interpretive framework, rectification has the dual functions of correction and prescription by ensuring that predetermined hierarchical roles are strictly adhered to through following ‘the system of rites and propriety’ (Cao 2016, 151). In addition, the rectification of names entails ‘using names to rectify actuality’ (Cao 2016, 151). Yet Cao rejects this whole body of interpretive works by arguing that these were ideas developed later. Instead, Cao suggests the following: The original meaning of Confucius’ rectification of names may, then, be quite simple. Confucius did not mean to establish a concrete, normative system of “names”; rather, Confucius was simply the first person in history to realize or remark upon the importance of language in politics. As a politician, he noticed and foresaw the impact that the indeterminacy, ambiguity, and arbitrariness of names would have on politics. Confucius recognized the political consequences of language’s not accurately expressing meaning or not being accurately received by people. He realized the great role that names, as a means of distinguishing right and wrong and establishing norms, could play in society and politics (Cao 2016, 168). Scholarly debates aside, Cao’s view has the advantage of identifying an interpretation of this controversial exchange in the Analects that enables its readers to extrapolate from it the observation that the meaning of words depends as much on their users as on their interpreters; neither of which can be predetermined. Accordingly, a good ruler is someone who can speak without ambiguity to his subjects and make good his words through actions. Stated differently, Cao’s view on what concerned Confucius then, who was living through times of protracted political upheaval, is that language is an indispensable political tool for those in power and can be deployed by both good and bad rulers alike. To sum up, this historical survey shows that politics as a war of words is by no means a distinctive marker of contemporary politics nor the Western world. Be it ancient or current, east or west, language is subject to manipulation to serve political purposes and when there is an outright war of words that defies existing norms, it is indicative of a political situation in which people no longer share a language and truth becomes irrelevant. Accordingly, political order entails stability in language use. Truth and Politics As previously noted, current use of the term post-truth as an adjective to the term ‘politics’ suggests that once there was a time when politics aligned with truth. Indeed, if we start with Plato’s Republic as the key founding text of Western political thought, we see that the ideal polis (city-state of ancient Greece) is where truth and politics converge, and justice is achieved. Written around 380 BCE when Athens was still coping with its defeat by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian War, the Republic is a defence of the rule of the ‘philosopher king’, defined as someone who is ‘guided by the truth’ and is ‘always and in every way’ in pursuit of the truth (Plato 1974, 490a). For Plato, truth converges with virtues and hence, letting the philosopher take charge of politics is to let the wisest and the most virtuous lead the less wise and the less virtuous even if it requires compulsion (Plato 1974, 499b). In Plato’s words, ‘…until the philosophers attain power in a city there will be no respite from evil for either city or citizens…’ (Plato 1974, 501e). The uncompromising rule of philosopher-kings is made palatable by the claim that we are all ‘earth- born brothers’ with random mixtures of gold, silver, bronze and iron, but only the gold can rule (Plato 1974, 414–415). Understandably, academic debates over the interpretation of Plato’s Republic revolve around the question of whether truth as attained in philosophy can be realised in politics as action and whether such a connection is even desirable. Without getting into the details of these scholarly exchanges, I suggest that they all share the concern that truth acquired through the rigorous process of philosophical reasoning is not without problem when applied to the real world of living humans. This is because not all humans are philosophers – and indeed, in Plato’s view, not everyone is capable of becoming a philosopher given the protracted and arduous training that one needs to endure to become one. Hannah Arendt (1906–1975), a highly influential political philosopher of the twentieth century, notes that ‘Plato was the first to introduce the division between those who know and do not act and those who act and do not know’ and that such a separation has remained ‘at the root of all theories of domination’ (Arendt 1958, 223, 225). What Arendt points out in this remark is not the gap between theory and practice, but rather that Plato provides the normative ground for those who know the truth to tell those who do not know what to do. Arendt herself took on the challenge of understanding the relationship between truth and politics through her analysis of Nazism and Stalinism. Arendt’s insight, which was controversial when The Origins of Totalitarianism was published in 1951, was to identify Nazism and Stalinism as representative of a new form of political rule – totalitarianism – making it distinct from ‘other forms of political oppression... such as despotism, tyranny and dictatorship’ (Arendt 1973, 460). Arendt defines totalitarianism as a self- contained system of ideas driven by their ‘logic’ and marked by a mode of reasoning called ‘ideological thinking.’ Ideological thinking as such is a distinctive form of political reasoning defined by three characteristics. First, ideological thinking claims to provide a ‘total explanation’ of all historical happenings, encompassing the past, the present, and the future. Second, while ideological thinking is an attempt to account for ‘factual reality’ in its totality, this mode of thinking is paradoxically divorced from reality and experience. This is because experience, being rooted in specificity, is clearly limited in its claim to totality. It follows that as its third characteristic, ideological thinking aims to emancipate thought from the limitation imposed by experience through a ‘specific method of demonstration.’ The method involves arranging facts into an ‘absolutely logical procedure’ that starts from an ‘axiomatically accepted premise’. It is, in short, a ‘process of deduction from a premise’ – which is the only possible movement in the realm of logic that leads to one definitive conclusion. This is how the ‘logicality of ideological thinking’ provides the basis for total explanation and the ‘principle of action’ for totalitarian movement (Arendt 1973, 468–474). Stated differently, totalitarianism is a form of uncompromising idealism that exists in one’s head irrespective of shared reality as experienced. It is the perverse form of what Arendt later refers to as ‘rational truth’, which is the product of the ‘speculative mind’ that belongs to philosophy, mathematics and the sciences. The ‘speculative mind’ is the mind working on its way to generate axioms and theories by relying on the cognitive capacity of the human brain (Arendt 1977, 231). The presence of others has no bearing whatsoever on rational truth. In contrast, ‘factual truth’ is what happens when humans are ‘living and acting together’ (Arendt 1977, 231). Factual truth is therefore particular and temporal by definition. But more importantly, factual truth is ‘political by nature’ because it can only be validated in the context of the human community (Arendt 1977, 238). In other words, factual truth is about humans in their plurality rather than in their singularity. For factual truth to be sustainable, we need what Arendt calls ‘common sense’ – understood as ‘community sense’ (Arendt 1982, 72). There is also another distinction about truth that Arendt makes which is pertinent to understanding how totalitarianism works. The issue is whether the so-called totalitarian ideology is simply an unnecessarily cumbersome way of saying that it is an all-round and polished lie. Here, Arendt calls totalitarian ideology the ‘modern lie’ – in contrast to the ‘traditional lie’. The latter is restricted by two conditions: that it is a lie about the ‘particulars’ and that it deceives only the ‘enemy’ – which means that the liar is not engaged in self- deception. The modern lie, however, involves a ‘complete rearrangement of the whole factual texture’. It also intends to deceive everyone alike, to the extent that those who initiate the lie eventually ‘fall victims to their own falsehood’ (Arendt 1977, 249–254). This distinction between the traditional and modern lie is important. It indicates that not only is totalitarianism a lie, but the lie is in fact too big to fit into the standard meaning of the word. To tell a lie from truth, we need a common standard. In the case of a traditional lie, the common standard is precisely ‘the fabric of factuality’. As such, a lie always appears as a ‘tear’ to that fabric. Yet, modern lies require making a surrogate reality with a completely different context for facts to fit ‘without seam, crack, or fissure, exactly as the facts fitted into their original context’. Arendt notes that as long as those who concoct the surrogate reality are prepared to engage in self- deception to ‘create a semblance of truthfulness’, there is nothing to prevent ‘these new stories, images, and non-facts from becoming an adequate substitute for reality and factuality’ (Arendt 1977, 253–254). Totalitarianism therefore requires a person to stand outside of the system itself in order to make sense of it. Arendt points out that it is futile for us to argue with (for example) a Nazi or a Stalinist on race or class. To confront totalitarianism requires more than just a confrontation with specific facts. It is a more fundamental confrontation between reality as experienced and its total rejection. This means that Nazism and Stalinism are more than radical ways of conducting racial conflict or class struggle. Rather: Totalitarian politics – far from being simply antisemitic or racist or imperialist or communist – use and abuse their own ideological and political elements until the basis of factual reality, from which the ideologies originally derived their propaganda value– the value of struggle, for instance, or the interest conflicts between Jews and their neighbours – have all but disappeared (Arendt 1973, xv). Accordingly: The ideal subject of totalitarian rule is not the convinced Nazi or the convinced Communist, but people for whom the distinction between fact and fiction (that is, the reality of experience) and the distinction between true and false (that is, the standards of thought) no longer exist (Arendt 1973, 474). Who then is the ‘ideal subject’ of totalitarianism? Although there is a revival of interest in Arendt’s observation on truth and politics since the onset of post- truth politics, not enough has been said about her reply to the question (Hyvönen 2018; Klinkler 2018; Lee 2019; Zerilli 2020). Yet if we take a look at Arendt’s portrait of this ideal subject, her view is even more pertinent to our current challenge. As a self-contained system of ideas that is detached from experience, totalitarian thinking offers consistency in ways that reality cannot. Arendt notes that this kind of consistency is especially appealing to those who have lost a sense of bearing in the world (Arendt 1973, 353). They constitute what she calls the ‘masses’. The ‘mass man’ is thus a highly isolated and atomised individual, who is ‘obsessed by a desire to escape from reality’ (Arendt 1973, 318, 352). In his ‘essential homelessness’ the mass man can ‘no longer bear its accidental, incomprehensible aspects’ (Arendt 1973, 352). This longing for escape from reality is a ‘verdict against the world’ in which one is ‘forced to live’ but ‘cannot exist’ (Arendt 1973, 352). Such a situation is ripe for the ‘revolt of the masses’ against ‘common sense,’ which is ‘the result of their atomisation, of their loss of social status’ and with it, the ‘whole sector of communal relationships in whose framework common sense makes sense’ (Arendt 1973, 352). In short, the masses are people who are considered to be ‘superfluous or can be spared … [who] cannot be integrated into any organisation based on common interest’ (Arendt 1973, 311). Whether one agrees with Arendt’s analysis of the social conditions in the interwar years that led to the formation of the ‘masses’, her portrait of the ‘mass man’ is a powerful account of what can happen to an individual who has become disposable to the society that they used to belong to. Hand in hand with this phenomenon is indeed the collapse of ‘common sense’ that leaves the dislodged individual scrambling for reconnection. By offering the masses a substitute reality validated by the ‘logic of an idea’ rather than by experience, totalitarianism makes it possible for them to live in a world where there is no condition of plurality. Between ‘facing the anarchic growth and total arbitrariness of decay’ and ‘bowing down before the most rigid, fantastically fictitious consistency of an ideology’, the masses will likely ‘choose the latter’ (Arendt 1973, 352). A world created by ideology, then, is more attractive to the masses not because ‘they are stupid and wicked, but because in the general disaster this escape grants them a minimum of self- respect’ by conjuring up ‘a lying world of consistency which is more adequate to the needs of the human mind than reality itself’ (Arendt 1973, 353). Moreover, it is precisely this ability to guarantee consistency that makes it possible for the leaders of totalitarian movements to demand ‘total, unrestricted, unconditional and unalterable loyalty of the individual member’ (Arendt 1973, 323). While this chapter is not a study of the social factors that led to specific contemporary developments such as the result of the Brexit referendum or the election of Donald Trump in 2016, Arendt’s ‘mass man’ seem to have found their counterparts among the supporters of Brexit and Trumpism. Studies of voters’ profiles in both events point to a disproportionate share of supporters from white male lower income backgrounds without university educations. These are individuals who have either already lost their jobs to globalisation or who are at high risk of losing their job with very little capacity to be retrained for the twenty-first century market economy of advanced industrialised states (BBC 2016; Pew Research Center 2018). In short, these displaced workers are part of the tapestry forming the modern equivalent of Arendt’s ‘mass man’ – ready to be the recruits of totalitarianism. Conclusion If we step back to take a more comprehensive approach to the relationship between truth and politics, both historically and theoretically, it is not so obvious that 2016 is a defining moment. From ancient China and ancient Greece to our so-called post-truth age, the indeterminacy of language appears to be a persistent political challenge. Language is always open to manipulation by its users to serve power. Nonetheless, the tendency these days is to single out the ubiquity of social media and the proliferation of Internet platforms as the incubator for the countless cyberwars of words that in turn fuel the real world of politics. In this context, language is no longer the conveyor of objective facts and accurate information, but rather the medium for expressing subjective opinions and feelings, as captured by the Oxford Dictionary’s definition of the term ‘post-truth politics’. In contrast, the historical approach used in this chapter shows that it is in fact too easy to point the figure at the Internet and digital communication for the political challenge that we face today. What is being suggested here is that with or without the Internet, language, be it used to convey facts or emotions, is simply a tool for communication that humans have invented. While language per se cannot adjudicate what is true or not true, what is right or wrong, it embodies such capacity when language is a shared norm. That shared norm cannot be sustained without some semblance of cohesion in any given community. Any war of words, irrespective of its platform, is indicative of the breakdown of such cohesiveness. Returning to the original context in which the term post-truth politics was first used by Steve Tesich helps to identify the important distinction between truth as the standard for knowledge and truth as the standard for action. The two do not necessarily coincide. Placed in the context of the history of political thought, this distinction is in fact at the heart of Plato’s Republic. Yet when the philosopher as the quintessential bearer of truth becomes king, the polis that he rules over is far from the ideal of a just state that it purports to be. Instead, it is one that is held together by lies and coercion. What Arendt reveals through her study of Nazism and Stalinism is that it is dangerous for the kind of truth that philosophy generates – ‘rational truth’ – to become the guide to politics. Politics guided by rational truth can only be uncompromising and follows a logic of its own that cannot afford the ambiguity and indeterminacy of reality as lived experiences of humans. A world of post-truth politics can be an opportunity for a new kind of politics if it is indeed about dismantling the idea that truth is the ideal that politics should strive for. But as it stands, the post-truth politics of today is more about invoking a past that never exists to judge the presence as a crisis in naming when the real crisis is about rebuilding a shared space that has room for all – be they of the left, right or centre; cosmopolitan or parochial; civic-minded or self-centred; liberal-minded or bigoted. Politics is and always will be about striving for that space, without which no human can thrive. References Arendt, Hannah. 1958. The Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Arendt, Hannah. 1973. The Origins of Totalitarianism. Rev. ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Arendt, Hannah. 1977. “Truth and Politics.” In Between Past and Future, 227–264. New York: Penguin Books. Arendt, Hannah. 1982. Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy, edited by Ronald Beiner. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. British Broadcasting Corporation. 2016. “Brexit vote: The breakdown.” BBC News, December 7, 2016. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-38227674 Cao, Feng. 2016. “A New Examination of Confucius’ Rectification of Names.” Journal of Chinese Humanities 2: 147–171. https://doi-org.subzero.lib. uoguelph.ca/ doi/ 10.1163/23521341-12340032. Connor, W. Robert. 1984. Thucydides. Princeton: Princeton University Press. de Jonge, Casper C. 2017. “Dionysius of Halicarnassus on Thucydides.” in The Oxford Handbook of Thucydides, edited by Sara Forsdyke, Edith Foster, and Ryan Balot. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/ oxfordhb/9780199340385.013.17 https://www-oxfordhandbooks-com.subzero. lib.uoguelph.ca/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199340385.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199340385 Hyvönen, Ari-Elmeri. 2018. “Careless Speech: Conceptualizing Post-Truth Politics.” New Perspectives 26 (3): 31–55. https://www.proquest.com/ scholarly-journals/careless-speech-conceptualizing-post-truth/ docview/2204515132/se-2?accountid=11233. Hobbes, Thomas. 1839–1845. The English Works of Thomas Hobbes, edited by Sir William Molesworth. London: John Bohn. Vol. 8. Klinkner, Melanie. 2018. “Reasonable Truth.” International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics 14 (3): 393–99. doi:10.1386/macp.14.3.393_7. Lee, Haiyan. 2019. “When Nothing Is True, Everything Is Possible: On Truth and Power by Way of Socialist Realism.” PMLA/Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 134 (5). Cambridge University Press: 1157–64. https://doi.org/10.1632/pmla.2019.134.5.1157 Lewis, Mark E. 1999. “Warring States Political History.” In The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC, edited by Michael Loewe and Edward Shaughnessy, 587–650. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Makeham, John. 2003. “Zheng ming (Rectification of names).” In RoutledgeCurzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism, edited by Xinzhong Yao. Vol. 2: 813-814. New York: Routledge. Oxford Languages, n. d. “Word of the Year 2016.” Accessed 19 August 2017. https://languages.oup.com/word-of-the-year/2016/ Peters, Richard. 1979. Hobbes. Westport: Greenwood Press. Pew Research Center. 2018. “An examination of the 2016 electorate, based on validated voters.” Report, August 9, 2018. https://www.pewresearch.org/ politics/2018/08/09/an-examination-of-the-2016-electorate-based-on- validated-voters/ Plato. 1974. Republic. Translated by G. M. A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hackett. Tesich, Steve. 1992. “Watergate Syndrome: A Government of Lies.” The Nation: 12-14. January 6/13, 1992. Thucydides. 1972. The Peloponnesian War. Translated by Rex Warner. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. Wolin, Sheldon. 2004. Politics and Vision: Continuity and Innovation in Westen Political Thought. Expanded Edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Zerilli, Linda M. G. 2020. ‘Fact-Checking and Truth-Telling in an Age of Alternative Facts.’ Le foucaldien 6, no. 1: 2, 1–22. Theresa Man Ling Lee is an Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of Guelph (Canada). Lee is a political theorist who specializes in contemporary political thought. Her research and teaching areas include continental philosophy, Marxism and critical theory, feminism, postmodernism, philosophy of social science, psychoanalysis, multiculturalism, human rights, disability studies, modern Chinese political thought and comparative political theory. Lee has published on a wide range of subjects in these areas, including intercultural pedagogy and the challenges of teaching as a person with multiple minority designations in a Canadian university classroom.
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See what Pat Fitzgerald said after wrapping up Notre Dame week, and turning ahead to Nebraska.
Incarnate Word vs. Michigan State Exhibition: How to Watch
Tom Izzo debuts a top-10 recruiting class at the Breslin Center, giving Jeremy Fears Jr. and new Spartans a high-energy tune-up during the legendary Izzone Campout.
Former Michigan State DB works out with New England Patriots
A former Michigan State defensive back has gotten a free agent workout with the New England Patriots.
Tom Izzo comments on recent approved NCAA Tournament expansion
"I understand it from both sides. I would rather it stay the same, but as you know, coaches weren't asked at all."
Izzo, Fears and Carr to Represent Spartans at Media Day
Veteran coach Tom Izzo joins high-stakes stars Jeremy Fears Jr. and Coen Carr to address national expectations and the program's evolution ahead of a pivotal Big Ten campaign.
Spartans Wire Big Ten Football Picks: Week 4
Check out our picks against the betting spread for each of the Big Ten games this week
Rutgers Football 2026 Opponent Preview: Michigan State
The final game of the season will come against the Spartans.
Friday Night Blitz Week Two: Minico handles business against Vallivue 39-0
The Minico Spartans improve to 2-1 on the season after a dominant home win over the 1-1 Vallivue Falcons.
Former MSU Interim AD Jon Palumbo Heading to Kentucky
The Spartans’ leadership exodus continues as another top executive reunites with J Batt in Lexington, leaving East Lansing to navigate a shifting front office after months of transition.
Spartans LB Jordan Hall Upgraded, Could Play vs. Illinois
Michigan State's Jordan Hall moved from doubtful to questionable and could return against Illinois. #GoGreen
Three Keys to a Michigan State Victory
Shaky secondary play and a familiar face at quarterback threaten the Spartans' momentum. Success hinges on precise passing and defensive discipline to avoid another late-game scare.
Notre Dame Defense Could Dominate Matchups Against Michigan State
Notre Dame's defense has been off to a hot start in 2026, answering a lot of questions we might have had about this unit in during the offseason. They held Wisconsin's offense to 13 points in the season opener and shut out Rice in the home opener last weekend. This Saturday night, they host the Michigan State Spartans in the battle for the Megaphone Trophy. Their offense, now under the direction of offensive coordinator Nick Sheridan, has scored 30 points or more in back to back games. If the Ir
Michigan State football 2026 game-by-game predictions: Toledo
Predicting every Michigan State football game for the 2026 season, starting with the season-opener against the Toledo Rockets
Michigan State football 2026 game-by-game predictions: Nebraska
Predicting every Michigan State football game for the 2026 season -- next up is the Spartans' conference opener against the Nebraska Cornhuskers
Michael Vick notches first Division I win, more to come?
Michael Vick secured his first Division I victory in resounding fashion with a blowout win over Hampton in this year’s Battle of the Bay. Last year’s matchup was a high-scoring affair that stayed close throughout and saw Hampton ultimately emerge victorious. But in Vick’s second year leading the Spartans, they looked way more potent offensively and […] The post Michael Vick notches first Division I win, more to come? appeared first on ClutchPoints.
Jordan Hall Out, Brady Pretzlaff In: Michigan State Availability Report
Reinforcements arrive in Madison as the Spartans regain key defensive depth, leaning on freshman standout Brady Pretzlaff to anchor the linebacking corps despite devastating injuries to two stars.
Michigan State Defensive and Special Teams Grades: Week Two
Eli Coenen’s pass-rush dominance and a revitalized secondary fueled a second-half shutout, proving the Spartans corrected their Week One flaws to stifle the Eagles’ struggling offense.
Michigan State at Wisconsin: Three Best Bets
After a string of bad luck, find out which player props and alternate spreads offer the best value as the injury-riddled Spartans face a surging Badgers squad.
FNF Week 5: Kennedy edges Salmen, 42-40
The Kennedy Cougars hosted the Salmen Spartans on Thursday night at Pan American Stadium.
Prominent local sports analyst names MSU AD candidate to monitor
Who will be the next Michigan State athletic director? A prominent local sports analyst has provided a candidate to keep an eye on moving forward
No. 3 Spartans Open Season With Dominant Offensive Showing
Anthony Romani netted two goals as East Lansing’s high-octane offense dismantled Northern Michigan, showcasing a lethal power play and top NHL prospects in a statement season-opening victory.
Michigan State Injuries Were Massive Hits to the Team
A brutal wave of pregame and mid-match casualties left the Spartans depleted, forcing a depleted roster into a desperate battle of attrition against a surging Nebraska squad.
Michigan State Spartans Football report card through four games
How is the Michigan State Football Team playing so far?
Michigan State football vs Illinois injury update: Key LB returns
Michigan State football senior LB Jordan Hall was left off the Spartans’ pregame availability report, meaning he appears to be a go on Saturday.
Notre Dame football takes care of business, sets up unbeaten showdown vs. Southern Lehigh
The Crusaders posted an emphatic victory over Palmerton on Friday night in preparation of massive showdown against the Spartans next week.
Michigan State Sets Official Visit With Top-60 Center
Tom Izzo targets another elite anchor for the Spartans' future as New Jersey’s top-ranked prospect brings his recruitment to East Lansing following visits to UConn and Florida.
Where's MSU basketball land in latest preseason rankings from ESPN?
See where Michigan State basketball landed in the latest batch of preseason rankings from ESPN
Cam Edwards Ready to Lead Michigan State’s Backfield in 2026
Michigan State enters the 2026 season with plenty of new faces and questions surrounding its offense, but the Spartans may already have their answer at running back. UConn transfer Cam Edwards arrives in East Lansing after putting together the best season of his college career, giving Michigan State an experienced and proven option to lead…
Michigan State baseball earns B1G series win over Washington
Michigan State earned a massive Big Ten series win over Washington this past weekend.
Dan Bartholomae: Michigan State AD position is 'destination job'
Michigan State introduced Dan Bartholomae, and the new athletic director wants the Spartans to 'win at the highest levels' and compete for titles.
How Spartans and citizen scientists team up to protect Michigan’s natural spaces
Through MSU Extension and community science initiatives, Michiganders across the state are stepping up to contribute directly to scientific research that helps protect Michigan’s lakes, waterways, forests, wildlife and biodiversity.
WEATHER REPORT: Notre Dame Fighting Irish VS Michigan State Spartans
What’s the weather going to be like for the prime time game between Notre Dame and Michigan State?
Wisconsin tight ends prepare for Michigan State, familiar faces
Emmett Bork and his Badgers teammates are developing a "mess-you-up" mindset and await their next test vs. the Spartans.
Michigan State's Injury Report Looks Like a Christmas Shopping List
A wave of sidelined stars and season-ending blows leaves the Spartans dangerously thin as they prepare to face a surging Wisconsin team with a depleted roster.
Monday Night Therapy: Huskers vs. Spartans Week 4
Minnie Hunt welcomes Husker Chuck back to Monday Night Therapy to recap Nebraska’s 3-0 start and look ahead to the Huskers’ first Big Ten matchup against Michigan State. While Nebraska handled its first three opponents as expected, Chuck cautions that conference play represents a significant jump in competition and should provide a much better measuring […]
Michigan State football 2026 game-by-game predictions: Eastern Michigan
Predicting every Michigan State football game for the 2026 season -- next up is a home matchup against the Eastern Michigan Eagles
Former MSU hockey star scores first career NHL playoff goal
A former Spartans star is continuing to thrive at the highest level of hockey, and now it's happening in the postseason
Corn Nation Overreaction: Huskers Dominate Spartans, Remain Undefeated
Nebraska moved to 4-0 with a convincing 31-13 road victory over Michigan State, and Greg and Jake broke down an “ugly win” that still showed how far the Huskers have come. Nebraska didn’t play its best football, particularly in the running game, but the defense dominated with six sacks, multiple takeaways, excellent tackling, and impressive […]
Michigan State Defensive and Special Teams Report Card: Week One
Dominant line play and linebacker heroics propelled the Spartans against Toledo, but glaring lapses in the secondary nearly derailed a physical, high-energy defensive debut in East Lansing.
Three Prop Bets I Love: Nebraska at Michigan State
Capitalize on Cam Edwards’ workload and Jordan Savoury’s consistency as the Spartans return home, looking to dominate the ground game and exploit Nebraska's defense in East Lansing.
Why Michigan State Will Cover Its 4.5-Win Total
Dismissed by oddsmakers, the Spartans are primed for a resurgence. A manageable schedule and a gritty, blue-collar culture provide a clear path to exceeding low expectations.
Alessio Milivojevic Remains Spartans QB, but Patience Is Growing Thin
Freshman promise has vanished behind a crumbling offensive line as Milivojevic’s turnover-prone struggles force Michigan State to decide if their struggling starter can still salvage the season.
Where did MSU football land in latest bowl projections from CBS Sports?
Michigan State football remains left off the latest bowl projections from CBS Sports
Friday Football: Helias takes care of business with shutout of Battle
The Helias Crusaders got exactly what they wanted Friday night: jump out to a big lead, get the starters out of the game for the second half, finish with a shutout. “The challenge all week was to play to our standard,” Helias coach Chris Hentges said Friday night after the Crusaders rolled to a 52-0 win against the Battle Spartans in a Central Missouri Activities Conference contest at Ray Hentges Stadium.
Behind Enemy Lines: MSU insider previews Notre Dame contest
Notre Dame football will host Michigan State this weekend Andrew Brewster, and we asked SpartansWire’s editor what to expect this weekend.
Michigan State at Wisconsin: Spread and Over/Under Prediction
The Spartans head to Madison facing defensive hurdles and the loss of star playmaker Cam Edwards, while the surging Badgers look to capitalize on home-field momentum.
Top Michigan State commit opting for another year in juniors
One of the top commits in the Michigan State pipeline is opting to play another year in juniors.
Spartans Offensive Positional Group Report Card: Week One
Alessio Milivojevic’s pocket poise and a revitalized backfield powered a gritty fourth-quarter surge, revealing which units excelled and which stalled in the Spartans’ hard-fought season opener.
Offensive Line Looks Offensive: Spartans Rank Last in Sacks Allowed
From personnel shifts to coaching failures, a crumbling front wall has left the Spartans reeling as record-breaking sack numbers threaten to derail the Pat Fitzgerald era.
Michigan State vs Notre Dame live updates: Score, highlights, analysis
Follow along live as Michigan State gears up for a rivalry matchup with Notre Dame
Michigan State football in need of a health check as Big Ten play hits
As Pat Fitzgerald starts his quest to return Michigan State football to the top of the Big Ten, the Spartans enter with some health questions.
Toronto Maple Leafs invite Matt Lahey to development camp
Michigan State sophomore Matt Lahey will be participating in the Toronto Maple Leafs development camp.
Jayden Savoury Has Announced Himself as MSU’s Top Tight End
The Orchard Lake product transformed offseason hype into on-field production, emerging as Alessio Milivojevic’s vital security blanket while providing a new, physical dimension to the Spartans' passing attack.
Weather forecast, impact for Michigan State-Notre Dame on Saturday
It's going to rain on Saturday night in South Bend -- so what does that mean for the Spartans' chances at upsetting the Fighting Irish?
Celtic FC Women v Spartans on sale now
The Ghirls have had a fantastic start to the season, with a 100 per cent record so far in the league with four wins from four.The Hoops now begin their Sky Sports Cup campaign with a match at home thi...
Michigan State Positional Breakdown: Offensive Line
Heavy hitters and elite transfers anchor East Lansing’s trenches as the Spartans prioritize a punishing run game to protect their new quarterback and dominate the Big Ten.
Former Michigan State basketball star gets head coaching gig
A former Michigan State standout has gotten his latest high school head coaching job.
Michigan State basketball’s Big Ten schedule is set
The Spartans face the Wolverines twice late in conference play.
Michigan State’s New Uniform Comes With a Bizarre Warning
Michigan State will wear black-white-black against Wisconsin, but a bizarre scoring trend involving the Spartans' black uniforms comes with it.
Michigan State to Play Arkansas in 2026 CBS Sports Thanksgiving Classic in Detroit
East Lansing, Mich. – Michigan State's men's basketball team will face the University of Arkansas for the second-straight year in a non-conference game, this...
Highlights: MSU football survives upset scare, beats Toledo in opener
Watch highlights from the Spartans' season-opening victory against Toledo on Friday
Pair of Spartans named to preseason All-Big Ten teams
A pair of Spartans have been named to the preseason All-Big Ten teams released by The Athletic
Match Gallery: Celtic FC Women v Spartans
The last eight of the Sky Sports Cup awaits Celtic FC Women, who booked their place in the quarter-finals on Sunday.Running out 1-0 winners over Spartans, Grant Scott's side maintained their unbeaten ...
Michigan State vs. Eastern Michigan Score Prediction
Fresh off a gritty victory over Toledo, the Spartans must stifle former teammate Noah Kim and a hungry Eagles offense to remain undefeated in this heated intrastate battle.
Michigan State QB Alessio Milivojevic talks after loss to Nebraska
Check out what MSU QB Alessio Milivojevic had to say after the loss to Nebraska.
Tom Izzo Adds Another Intriguing Test to MSU Schedule
The Spartans bolster their future slate by hosting MAAC powerhouse Merrimack, a high-stakes December clash designed to test Tom Izzo’s squad against one of mid-major basketball’s rising forces.
Three Keys To A Spartans Homecoming Win Over Illinois
Pat Fitzgerald still seeks his first Big Ten win as Illinois visits for homecoming Saturday. #GoGreen
Coming to XBOX Game Pass: Halo: Campaign Evolved, Beast of Reincarnation, and More
Suit up Spartans, it’s time to jump into Halo: Campaign Evolved (plus a whole bunch of other games). We’ve got more coming into Premium, some Day One with XBOX Game Pass games, and more. Let’s get to it!
Week Two: Where to Watch Michigan State vs. Eastern Michigan
The Spartans look to sharpen their red-zone efficiency and shore up a vulnerable secondary as they host the Eagles for a high-stakes cross-county clash in East Lansing.
Spartan legend gives incoming goalie on ice coaching
Watch Spartan legend work with incoming MSU goalie Joshua Ravensbergen.
Michigan State Ranks Last in Big Ten in Scoring
A stagnant offense and critical injuries to key starters have the Spartans reeling, leaving a struggling young quarterback to salvage a season spiraling toward the conference basement.
PHOTO GALLERY: Notre Dame 27, Michigan State 10
Some of the best images from Notre Dame’s win over the Michigan State Spartans.
Five standout players from Michigan State football's win over Toledo
Five standout players from Michigan State's season opening win over Toledo
Michigan State LB Caleb Wheatland on his incoming increased role
Michigan State linebacker Caleb Wheatland talked about the increased role he is going to have this weekend against Wisconsin.
QB Alessio Milivojevic talks turning the page to Nebraska
Michigan State quarterback Alessio MIlivojevic talked about bouncing back against Nebraska.
MSU football opens as slight underdog against Nebraska this week
Check out the opening betting line for the Spartans-Cornhuskers matchup this upcoming week
Monday high school sports roundup: Cumberland district tournament
WISE, Va. (WJHL) – The Eastside Spartans baseball team dominated the diamond Monday night in the Cumberland district championship game. After changing host locations to the campus of UVA-Wise…
Michigan State suffers 31-3 loss at Wisconsin
MADISON, WI. (WLNS) — The Michigan State football team suffered its third straight loss in its first Big Ten road game of the season, falling 31-3 at Wisconsin Saturday. This is the first time since the 2024 season that MSU failed to score a touchdown in a game. The Spartans have scored a combined 26 […]
Michigan State football improves to 2-0, convincingly beats EMU
Michigan State is 2-0 after a convincing win over Eastern Michigan.
MSU basketball listed in top 10 of preseason poll from CBS Sports
See where Gary Parrish of CBS Sports has the Spartans in his latest preseason poll update
Castleton moving sports to MASCAC
CASTLETON, Vt. (WCAX) - After nine years in the Little East, Castleton is moving the majority of its athletic programs to the Massachusetts State Collegiate Athletic Conference. 20 of the 26 Spartans sports programs will move ahead of the 2027-28 school year. Castleton previously played one football season in the MASCAC before joining the New Jersey Athletic Conference ahead of the 2025 season. The MASCAC currently includes seven state universities from Massachusetts. Castleton replaces the one private member, Anna Maria College, as it shut down permanently at the end of this school year. There are a few hurdles Castleton will have to figure out: while four of the six sports not joining the MASCAC don’t participate in a traditional collegiate conference, the tennis programs will likely need to find affiliate memberships to build schedules. And Castleton will have to schedule rival Norwich as part of its nonconference hockey slate...but athletic director Tim Barrett says it’s the right move for the Spartans, especially when it comes to football. “We’ve had ongoing conversations for the last couple of years regarding the possibilities within the MASCAC,” Barrett said. “Obviously, we had the one year relationship for football in the MASCAC, we enjoyed our time there, we felt at that point we were a natural fit for that conference. So we’re looking forward to it, we’re also looking forward to the next seasons within the Little East Conference, but I do think this was the right move at the right time.”
Michigan State football grades vs Wisconsin: Why are Spartans lifeless?
Free Press sports writer Chris Solari grades Michigan State football after the Spartans’ 31-3 loss at Wisconsin on Saturday, Oct. 3.
Week 4 Predictions: Huskers at Spartans
Mike: The exhibition season is OVAH. Jarek: It’s the fourth week of the season and we’ve played teams who’s colors are green or had “green” in their name. Jill: Just casually dropping in (finally) in Week 4. It’s time for some B1G football!! Andy: So Northwestern – are they for real? UCLA (-1.5) at Maryland […]
Michigan State Athletics Announces 2026 All-Sports Award Winners
EAST LANSING, Mich. - Michigan State Athletics has announced its All-Sports Awards for the 2025-26 season. The awards include the George Alderton Male and Fe...
Michigan State football 2026 game-by-game predictions: Oregon
Predicting every Michigan State football game for the 2026 season -- next up is a home conference game against the Oregon Ducks
PFF ranks Michigan State's top five offensive players vs. Wisconsin
Check out who PFF ranked as Michigan State's top five offensive players against Wisconsin.